WHO IS THE “TYPICAL CRIMINAL”
IN HIS INFAMOUS 1993 BOOK, HOW
TO STOP CRIME, POLICE CHIEF ANTHONY BOUZA WRITES “STREET CRIME IS
MOSTLY A BLACK AND POOR YOUNG MAN’S GAME.”
IN THE USA, BLACK LEADER,
REVEREND JESSE JACKSON ONCE SAID: “ THERE IS NOTHING MORE PAINFUL TO ME
AT THIS STAGE OF MY LIFE THAN TO WALK DOWN THE STREET AND HEAR FOOTSTEPS AND
START THINKING ABOUT ROBBERY – AND THEN LOOK AROUND AND SEE SOMEONE WHITE AND
FEEL RELIEVED.”
IN HER 1998 BOOK, THE
COLOR OF CRIME, KATHRYN RUSSELL SPEAKS OF THE "CRIMINALBLACKMAN."
THE CRIMINALBLACKMAN IS A
COMPOSITE OF WHITE FEARS OF BLACK MEN’S CRIMINALITY == IT MAY BECOME SO STRONG
AND SO WIDESPREAD THAT IT ALLOWS FOR “RACIAL HOAXES,” IN WHICH A WHITE OFFENDER
BLAMES AN AFRICAN AMERICAN, USUALLY MALE, FOR THE OFFENSE IN QUESTION AND IS
READILY BELIEVED BY CRIMINAL JUSTICE AGENTS AND/OR THE GENERAL PUBLIC.
THE CRIMINALBLACKMAN IS A COMPOSITE OF WHITE
FEARS OF BLACK MEN’S CRIMINALITY == IT MAY BECOME SO STRONG AND SO WIDESPREAD
THAT IT ALLOWS FOR “RACIAL HOAXES,” IN WHICH A WHITE OFFENDER BLAMES AN AFRICAN
AMERICAN, USUALLY MALE, FOR THE OFFENSE IN QUESTION AND IS READILY BELIEVED BY
CRIMINAL JUSTICE AGENTS AND/OR THE GENERAL PUBLIC.
CHIRICOS, T. & ESCHOLZ, S. (2002). “THE
RACIAL AND ETHNIC TYPIFICATION OF CRIME AND THE CRIMINAL TYPIFICATION OF
RACE AND ETHNICITY IN LOCAL TELEVISION NEWS.” JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN CRIME
AND DELINQUENCY, 39 400-420. =====> ARGUE THAT “THE ICONOGRAPHY OF
THE BLACK CRIMINAL THREAT IS SO WELL ESTABLISHED THAT IT IS REASONABLY ASSERTED
THAT TODAY'S PREVAILING CRIMINAL PREDATOR HAS BECOME A EUPHEMISM FOR YOUNG
BLACK MALE.”
THE CONTINUED OVER-REPRESENTATION AT ALL LEVELS
OF THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM SIGNIFIWS THE CRUEL AFTER-EFFECTS OF THE
PUBLIC'S CONTINUED TYPIFICATION OF BLACK MALES AS CRIMINOGENIC PREDATORS
{{{CRIMINOGENIC: RELATING TO
CHARACTERISTICS OR FACTORS IDENTIFIED BY RESEARCH AS PREDICTORS OF CRIME
AND/OR RELATED RECIDIVISM.}}}
{{{EX: CRITICAL
ANALYSIS OF MEDIA COVERAGE — INFLUENCES PUBLIC PERCEPTIONS OF
SERIOUS CRIME AS LARGELY A MATTER OF RACE, REAL ESTATE (INCORPORATING
CLASS AND AREA), AND FAMILY CONSTITUTION [LEADING
TO AN INDICTMENT OF FAILED “MOTHERS” {RACIALIZED AND GENDER-IZED
BY WHITE PATRIARCHY]}}}
...
LETS LOOK MORE CLOSELY
AT THE FACE IN TODAY’S CRIMINAL JUSTICE MIRROR,
== WHILE DEVIANCE IN GENERAL IS COMMON ACROSS THE ENTIRE POPULATION, CRIMINAL ACTIVITY APPEARS TO BE CONCENTRATED IN CERTAIN SECTORS OF SOCIETY ==
WHO IS THE “TYPICAL CRIMINAL.”
1)
HE IS, FIRST OF ALL, A HE
=
[THE
MOST SIGNIFICANT FACTOR IN ANY STUDY OF CRIME ARREST RATES IS “GENDER”
== IN THE USA -- OF 1,554,737 PERSONS ARRESTED FOR FBI INDEX CRIMES
{AN AGGREGATE COLLECTION SYSTEM} IN
2001, 1,139,622, OR 73.3 PERCENT, WERE MALES]
[[ IN
CANADA == ACCORDING TO THE LEADING SOURCE ON CRIMES REPORTED IN CANADA
-- THE UNIFORM CRIME REPORT {UCR} DEVELOPED BY STATISTICS
CANADA == MEN OR MORE LIKELY THAN WOMEN TO COMMIT MAJOR PROPERTY CRIMES
{E.G., ROBBERY AND THEFT OVER $5000}, WHERE AS WOMEN ARE MORE LIKELY TO
BE INVOLVED IN MINOR PROPERTY CRIMES {E.G., THEFT $500 & UNDER AND
FRAUD} == MEN HAVE HIGHER ARREST RATES THAN WOMEN FOR VIOLENT CRIMES
SUCH AS HOMICIDE, AGGRAVATED ASSAULT, ROBBERY, AND BREAK AND ENTER; WOMEN
ARE MOST OFTEN ARRESTED FOR SUCH NONVIOLENT CRIMES AS SHOPLIFTING,
PASSING BAD CHEQUES, CREDIT CARD FRAUD, AND EMPLOYEE PILFERAGE {CRIMINOLOGIST
ESTIMATE THAT 10 PERCENT OF ALL HOMICIDES IN CANADA ARE COMMITTED BY WOMEN.
MOST OF THESE ARE LINKED TO DOMESTIC VIOLENCE AND SELF-DEFENCE.}
[[[NOTE:
UNLIKE THE FBI IN THE UNITED STATES, SOURCES IN CANADA
LIKE THE UNIFORM CRIME REPORT {UCR} USE AN INCIDENT-BASED
REPORTING SYSTEM INSTEAD OF AN AGGREGATE SYSTEM, COLLECTING DATA ON
EACH CRIMINAL EVENT, OFFENDER, AND VICTIM. IT IS THUS PROVIDING A MORE COMPLEX
PORTRAIT OF CRIME IN CANADA == IN ADDITION, BECAUSE THE NUMBER OF CRIMES
REPORTED IS NOT NECESSARILY THE NUMBER OF CRIMES COMMITTED, STATISTICS CANADA
CONDUCTS VICTIMIZATION SURVEYS, MOST RECENTLY IN THE GENERAL SOCIAL
SURVEY OF 1999, SURVEYING 26,000 RANDOMLY SELECTED HOUSEHOLDS TO
IDENTIFY VICTIMS OF PERSONAL CRIME]]]
2)
HE IS YOUNG
=
[AGE
IS AN IMPORTANT FACTOR IN ANY STUDY OF THOSE ACCUSED OF A CRIME == IN
THE USA – MORE THAN HALF {54 PERCENT} OF MEN ARRESTED FOR INDEX CRIMES WERE
UNDER THE AGE OF 25]
[IN
CANADA, THE PROPORTION OF THE POPULATION ACCUSED OF SERIOUS CRIMES, SUCH AS
HOMICIDE, SEXUAL ASSAULT, AND ROBBERY, TENDS TO PEAK DURING THE TEENAGE YEARS
OR EARLY ADULTHOOD AND THEN DECLINE WITH AGE == WERE AS IN 2000, 30.6 PERCENT
AND 29.4 PERCENT OF THOSE ACCUSED WITH COMMITTING OFFENCES WERE 18 TO 24, AND
25 TO 34, YEARS OF AGE RESPECTIVELY, 10.2 PERCENT AND 4.5 PERCENT WERE 45 TO
54, AND 55 OR MORE, YEARS OF AGE RESPECTIVELY.
SEVERAL
REASONS HAVE BEEN ADVANCED FOR AGE–CRIME PATTERNS, INCLUDING:
•
DIFFERENTIAL ACCESS TO
LEGITIMATE OR ILLEGITIMATE OPPORTUNITY STRUCTURES AT VARIOUS AGES; DIFFERENCES
IN SOCIAL FACTORS SUCH AS PEER INFLUENCES;
•
PHYSIOLOGICAL FACTORS
SUCH AS THE EFFECTS OF AGING ON STRENGTH, SPEED, AND AGGRESSION; AND
•
BUILDING UP DEVIANT
NETWORKS THAT MAKE IT POSSIBLE FOR PEOPLE SUCH AS FENCES TO COMMIT LESS–VISIBLE
CRIMES (STEFFENSMEIRER AND ALLAN, 1995).
3)
HE IS PREDOMINANTLY URBAN
THE
IDEA THAT CRIME NEEDS {ILLEGITIMATE} OPPORTUNITY STRUCTURES AND DEVIANT NETWORKS
IMPLIES THAT IT IS FACILITATED BY AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT
[[IN
THE USA, CITIES WITH POPULATION OVER 250,000 HAD A RATE OF 1,118 ARRESTS FOR
FBI INDEX CRIMES PER 100,000 INHABITANTS.
[IN
CANADA, (1998) REGINA LED THE LIST OF SELECTED CITIES WITH 14,785 TOTAL
INCIDENTS PER 100,000 POPULATION. VANCOUVER, SASKATOON, VICTORIA AND THUNDER
BAY FOLLOWED BEHIND. QUEBEC CITY AHD THE LEAST NUMBER OF INCIDENTS AT 5,348. TORONTO
WAS RIGHT BEHIND WITH 5,839]
4)
FOURTH HE IS DISPROPORTIONATELY
BLACK (AND ABORIGINAL IN CANADA)
[IN THE
USA, BLACKS ARE ARRESTED FOR INDEX CRIMES AT A RATE NEARLY TWO-AND-A-HALF TIMES
THAT OF THEIR PERCENTAGE IN THE NATIONAL POPULATION. IN 2001, WITH BLACKS
REPRESENTING 12.8 PERCENT OF THE NATION’S POPULATION, THEY MADE UP 30.7 PERCENT
OF INDEX CRIME ARRESTS]
[IN
CANADA == {{REMARKABLY LITTLE INFORMATION IN THIS AREA THAT IS NOT BASED ON
ANECDOTES, BECAUSE CRIME STATISTICS IN CANADA DO NOT REPORT ON ETHNIC
BACKGROUND OF VICTIM AND ACCUSED. }} == WE DO HAVE INFORMATION ABOUT
BACKGROUNDS IN THE CANADIAN CORRECTIONAL SYSTEM WHERE, FOR EXAMPLE, INDIGENOUS
PEOPLE {3 PERCENT OF THE POPULATION} CONSTITUTE 14 PERCENT OF THE INMATES [IN
WESTERN CANADA, ABORIGINAL PEOPLE CONSTITUTE UPWARDS OF 75 PERCENT OF THE
INMATES IN PROVINCIAL JAILS.]
AND BLACKS
{2 PERCENT OF THE POPULATION} CONSTITUTE 6 PERCENT OF THE FEDERAL INMATES
(WORTLEY, 199: 262)}} == STUDIES SUGGEST THAT WHILE IMMIGRANTS COMMIT LESS
CRIME THAN THE CANADIAN-BORN, SOME IMMIGRANT GROUPS, SUCH AS THOSE FROM CERTAIN
CARIBBEAN COUNTRIES, TEND TO BE JAILED AT HIGHER RATES THAN THEIR PROPORTION IN
THE POPULATION == YOUNG BLACK MALES IN ONTARIO ARE ALSO JAILED MORE OFTEN,
ACCORDING TO A 1995 STUDY ON SYSTEMIC RACISM IN THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM.
{{EX:
BETWEEN 1993 AND 1995, 43.2 PERCENT OF THE RESPONDENTS STOPPED BY THE POLICE
WERE BLACK. ONLY 23.8 PERCENT OF THE RESPONDENTS WERE WHITE, AND 19 PERCENT
CHINESE.}}
{{EX:
THE 1995 REPORT ON SYSTEMIC RACISM IN ONTARIO’S CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM
INDICATED THAT BLACKS AND ABORIGINAL PEOPLE ARE MUCH MORE LIKELY TO END UP IN
PRISON. PRISON ADMISSIONS PER 100,000 MEMBERS OF THE TOTAL POPULATION STOOD AT
827. BY COMPARISON, THE RATE FOR BLACKS WAS 3686; FOR FIRST NATIONS, 1993; FOR
WHITES, 706; FOR ASIANS, 353. IN 1986 BLACKS CONSTITUTED 7.1 PERCENT OF
ONTARIO’S PRISON POPULATION; BYT 1992-93, 15.3 PERCENT, AN INCREASE OF 203.6
PERCENT (COMPARED TO ONLY A 23 PERCENT INCREASE FOR WHITES). ALTHOUGH BLACK
WERE LESS THAN 3 PERCENT OF THE POPULATION.}}
5)
FINALLY, HE IS
POOR
[IN THE
USA, ABOUT ONE-THIRD OF JAIL AND PRISON INMATES WERE UNEMPLOYED (WITHOUT FULL-
OR PART-TIME WORK) PRIOR TO BEING ARRESTED, A RATE CONSIDERABLY HIGHER THAN
THAT OF ADULTS IN THE GENERAL POPULATION. AMONG INMATES IN 1996 MORE THAN HALF
WERE NOT EMPLOYED FULL-TIME PRIOR TO ARREST, AND ABOUT HALF REPORTED PREARREST
INCOMES BELOW $7,200 A YEAR}
[IN
CANADA, CRIME RATES ALSO APPEAR TO BE DISTRIBUTED BY CLASS. HISTORICALLY,
WORKING CLASSES WERE ASSUMED TO BE MORE CRIMINALLY INCLINED BECAUSE OF DENIED
OPPORTUNITIES AND HARSH SOCIAL CIRCUMSTANCES. OTHERS SEE THE NATURE OF CRIMINAL
ACTIVITY REFLECTS A CLASS BIAS. A CLASS BIAS CAN BE DETECTED IN THE APPLICATION
OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE IN TERMS OF WHAT CONSTITUTES A CRIME, WHO AND WHAT ARE
SINGLED OUT AS CRIMINAL, AND HOW INDIVIDUALS ARE PROCESSED THROUGH THE SYSTEM.
== {CRIME IS PERCEIVED BY THE GENERAL
POPULACE AS AN OBJECTIVE THREAT TO WHICH THE SYSTEM REACTS, BUT IT IS A
REALITY THAT TAKES SHAPE AS IT IS FILTERED THROUGH A SERIES OF HUMAN DECISIONS
RUNNING THE FULL GAMUT OF THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM} == LAWS THAT
DEFINE CRIME TEND TO REFLECT THE INTEREST OF THE RICH AND POWERFUL; THERE IS A
CLASS BIAS IN THE PREFERENCE TO DETECT STREET CRIME RATHER THAN CORPORATE
CRIME; AND CLASS BIAS IS REFLECTED IN DIFFERENTIAL CONVICTION AND SENTENCING
FOR STREET CRIME AND WORKING CLASS OFFENCES – IN OTHER WORDS, THE POOR
DO NOT NECESSARILY COMMIT MORE CRIME. THEY ARE SIMPLY MORE LIKELY TO BE CAUGHT
AND CONVICTED THAT THE AFFLUENT.
AS
JEFFREY REIMAN PUT IT == “THIS IS THE ‘TYPICAL CRIMINAL’ FEARED BY MOST
LAW-ABIDING AMERICANS. POOR, YOUNG, URBAN (DISPROPORTIONATELY) BLACK MALES MAKE
UP THE CORE OF THE ENEMY FORCES IN THE CRIME WAR. THEY ARE THE HEART OF A
VICIOUS, UNORGANIZED GUERRILLA ARMY, THREATENING THE LIVES, LIMBS, AND
POSSESSIONS OF THE LAW-ABIDING MEMBERS OF SOCIETY, NECESSITATING RECOURSE TO
THE ULTIMATE WEAPONS OF FORCE AND DETENTION IN OUR COMMON DEFENSE
[PP.59].”
**SOCIOLOGICAL
CONCLUSIONS:
1)
DO VISIBLE MINORITY
VISIBILITIES COMMIT MORE CRIME, OR ARE THEY JUST MORE LIKELY TO BE CAUGHT AND
CHARGED BECAUSE OF THEIR VISIBILITY, THE FOCUS AND VISIBILITY OF “STREET
CRIME”, THE PREJUDICE AND “PROFILING” OF POLICE OFFICERS? == MANY
CRIMINOLOGIST/SOCIOLOGIST CONTEND IT IS THE SELECTIVITY AND BIAS THAT IS
INHERENT IN PROCESSING MINORITIES THAT TENDS TO DISTORT THE LEVEL AND PATTERN
OF OFFENDING WITHIN MINORITY COMMUNITIES – HAVING THE EFFECT OF “RACIALIZING”
CRIME ALONG RACE AND ETHNIC LINES, THUS FURTHER AMPLIFYING THE RISK OF
DETECTION AND APPREHENSION.
2)
FOR MINORITIES,
THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM IS PERCEIVED AS RACIST IN INTENT OR BY CONSEQUENCE;
MOST WHITES REJECT THIS CHARGE, ALTHOUGH THEY ACKNOWLEDGE THE EXISTENCE OF SOME
RACISTS WITHIN THE SYSTEM.