SUMMARY
(1) RACISM
OPERATES IN MANY FORMS, AND AT DIFFERENT LEVELS.
(2) RACISM
CAN BE COVERT AS WELL AS OVERT.
(3) RACISM
IS SUPPORTED BY SYSTEMS OF IDEAS AS WELL AS PRACTICES.
(4) RACISM SERVES TO CREATE, SUPPORT AND
REINFORCE DIFFERENTIAL POWER AND STATUS.
**SOCIOLOGY RECOGNIZES THAT A KEY COMPONENT OF
RACISM IS POWER.
COMPLEXITIES
AND NUANCES OF RACISM
RACISM =’S PREJUDICE +
DISCRIMINATION + POWER [TO CONTROL, EXCLUDE AND/OR EXPLOIT]
SOCIOLOGISTS HAVE ARGUED
THAT RACISM EXISTS IN MANY FORMS AND LEVELS OF SOCIETY == IN
FACT, IT IS SO COMPLEX AND HAS SO MANY NUANCES IN CONTEMPORARY
SOCIETY THAT IT IS [QUITE FRANKLY] IMPOSSIBLE TO IDENTIFY CORRECTLY OR
PRECISELY ON EACH AND EVERY OCCASION.
RACISM OCCURS IN THE INTERACTIONS
BETWEEN THE [DOMINANT] MAJORITY AND [SUBDOMINANT] MINORITY GROUPS == AND
SOME OF THESE INTERACTIONS ARE “INNOCUOUS” [I.E., HARMLESS] AND
SOME ARE “ONLY SEEMINGLY INNOCUOUS” [I.E., HARMLESS ON THE
SURFACE; BUT HARMFUL AT DEEP OR MORE SUBSTANTIVE LEVELS]
WHAT DOES THIS MEAN [FOR OUR LIVES]?
IN
OUR CONCERN FOR THE HARMFUL EFFECTS OR CONSEQUENCES OF ASYMMETRICAL GROUP INTERACTION
IT IS CRUCIAL TO KEEP IN MIND THE POWER RELATIONS AMONG THOSE WHO ARE
DOING THE TALKING ====è
ALL THAT WE CAN DO IN VIGILANCE IS TO CONTINUALLY ASK:
DOES A EVENT OR SITUATION THREATEN TO UPSET THE
BALANCE OF POWER?
IS THE DOMINANT RESPONSE TO SUBDOMINANT INTERACTION (SPEECH/CONDUCT) BASED
ON A THREAT TO STATUS QUO BALANCE OF POWER? AND IS THE ACTION PROVOKED AN
ATTEMPT TO MAINTAIN THE STATUS QUO SOCIAL ORDER?}}}}
FLERAS (PP. 6 “SOCIAL PROBLEMS”) ====> MODERN RACISM SHOULD
BE INTERPRETED AS “A SYSTEM OF POWER RELATIONS IN DEFENCE OF THE STATUS
QUO, WITH A COMPLEX ARRAY OF PRACTICES AND DISCOURSES THAT ARE HISTOICALLY
DEFINED, EMBEDDED WITHIN INSTITUTIONAL STRUCTURES, WOVEN INTO THE IDEOLOGICAL
FABRIC OF SOCIETY, AND ACTED OUT THROUGH DAILY ACTIONS.”
DEFINITIONS OF RACISM
RACISM IS MULTIDIMENTIONAL AND USUALLY SORTS
ITSELF OUT IN SEVERAL [INTERRELATED] CATEGOIES OF DEFINITIONS: RACISM AS
BIOLOGY, AS IDEOLOGY, AS CULTURE, AND AS POWER ====>
RACISM AS BIOLOGY (“RACISM AS RACE”) =====> [1] THE BELIEF THAT PEOPLE'S BEHAVIOR IS DETERMINED
BY GENES OR BIOLOGY {EX: BLACKS AS NATURALLY-BORN ATHLETS, JAPANESS AS
NATURALLY-GIFTED SCIENTISTS; ARABS AS FANATICS, ETC} --- [2] THE USE OF RACE AS
A BASIS FOR ENTITLEMENT OR EVALUATION OF OTHERS {EX: TO EXCLUDE OTHERS BECAUSE
OF SKIN COLOUR IS RACIST; TO INCLUDE OTHERS ON SIMILAR GROUNDS IS NO LESS
RACIST --- [3] RACISM AS BIOLOGY REFERS TO THE PROCESS OF ATTACHING AN
EVALUATIVE AND MORAL QUALITY TO PERCEIVED BIOLOGICALLY DIFFERENCES.
RACISM AS IDEOLOGY ======> [1] TRANSFORMS RACE-BASED DIFFERENCES INTO A HIERARCHY THAT
JUSTIFIES THE DOMINANCE OF ONE GROUP OVER ANOTHER --- [2] A RELATIVELY COHESIVE
SET OF BELIEFS (“IDEOLOGY”) AND PRACTICES IS IMPOSED THAT LABELS, CLASSIFIES,
EVALUATES, AND RANKS MEMBERS OF A GROUP ALONG A HIERARCHY BY VIRTUE OF THEIR
INCLUSION IN A PREDEFINED CATEGORY --- [3] UNEQUAL TREATMENT OF OTHERS IS
JUSTIFIED ON THE GROUND OF (“IMPUTED”) INNATE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN RACES.
RACISM AS CULTURE (“RACISM WITHOUT RACE”)=======> IN RECENT YEARS ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT
BIOLOGICAL INFERIORITY HAVE BEEN CRITIQUED AND SHIFTED TO ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT
CULTURAL INFERIORITY --- [1] MINORITIES ARE DENIED OR EXCLUDED BY RACIALIZING
CULTURAL DIFFERENCES AS A BASIS OF DENIAL OR DISLIKE {EX: CITIZENSHIP,
PATRIOTISM, AND HERITAGE} --- [2] PEOPLE OF ONE CULTURE ASSUME THEIR WAY OF
DOING THINGS IS NORMAL AND NECESSARY, TOGETHER WITH THE POWER TO IMPOSE THESE
BELIEFS AND PRACTICES ON OTHERS --- [3] RACIST DISCOURSES ARE AIMED AT
CRITICIZING THE CULTURAL “OTHER” WHEN DIFFERENCES ARE SEEN AS BEYOND THE PALE OF
INTEGRATION {EX: MIGRANTS AS SOURCE SOCIETY'S SOCIAL ILLS}
RACISM AS POWER (RACISM AS “RACIALIZATION”) ========> [1] RACISM AS A NETWORK OF POWER RELATIONS {SITUTATED WITHIN SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS AND THE INSTITUTIONAL STRUCTURES OF SOCIETY THAT UNINTENTIONALLY ADVANTAGE SOME, DISADVANTAGE OTHERS} --- [2] SOME GROUPS HAVE THE POWER TO ATTACH SOCIAL SIGNIFICANCE TO, DRAW BOUNDARIES AROUND, AND TAKE ADVANTAGE OF OTHERS BECAUSE OF PERCEIVED INFERIORITY {EX: RACIALIZATION OF BLACK CRIME} --- [3] RACISM AS POWER ENTAILS THE CAPACITY FOR SOME TO ESTABLISH AGENDAS REGARDING WHAT IS NORMAL, NECESSARY, DESIRABLE, OR ACCEPTABLE, THUS REINFORCING THE SUPERIORITY OF ONE GROUP OVER ANOTHER {EX: “THE HEGEMONIC ORDER OF WHITENESS” IS ISTITUTIONALIZED WITHIN THE STRUCTURES, VALUES, AND INSTITUTIONS OF SOCIETY.
FORMS OF RACISM
RACISM - IS THE DENIAL OF EQUAL TREATMENT OR ACCESS TO VALUED RESOURCES ON THE BASIS OF RACE.
MOST PEOPLE TEND TO THINK OF RACISM ONLY IN TERMS OF AN "OVERT ACT" OF INTOLERANCE AGAINST PEOPLE OR PROPERTY, LIKE A "HATE CRIME" -- EX: ANTI-SEMITIC OR ANTI-BLACK BEHAVIOR.
BUT, SOCIOLOGISTS HAVE FOUND THAT RACISM OPERATES IN MANY FORMS, AND AT COVERT AND OVERT LEVELS:
(A) EXPRESSIONS CAN BE WILFUL, DELIBERATE, CONSCIOUS, OR THEY CAN BE INDIRECT, UNINTENTIONAL, AND UNCONSCIOUS.
(B) THESE EXPRESSIONS ARE REFLECTED IN INDIVIDUAL ATTITUDES AND BELIEF SYSTEMS AND IN INSTITUTIONAL AND SOCIETAL POLICIES AND REGULATIONS.
_______________________________________________________________
SOCIOLOGIST SPEAK OF THESE DIFFERENT FORMS OF RACISM AS:
(1) INDIVIDUAL RACISM: IS A FORM OF RACIAL DISCRIMINATION THAT STEMS FROM CONSCIOUS, PERSONAL PREJUDICE. (EX: SLURS, DEROGATORY
(2) EVERYDAY RACISM -- INVOLVES THE MANY AND SOMETIMES SMALL WAYS IN WHICH RACISM IS EXPERIENCED BY PEOPLES OF COLOUR IN THEIR INTERACTIONS WITH THE DOMINANT WHITE GROUP. (EX: GLANCES, GESTURES, FORMS OF SPEECH AND PHYSICAL MOVEMENTS).
(3) CULTURAL RACISM -- MEANING BASICALLY THAT WE CAN CONCEIVE OF DISCRIMINATION ON THE BASIS OF ONE'S CULTURAL IDEAS, NORMS, VALUES AND MORAES.
(4) SYSTEMIC RACISM:
(A) INSTITUTIONAL -- IS MADE UP OF THE RULES, PROCEDURES,AND PRACTICES THAT DELIBERATELY PREVENT MINORITIES FORM HAVING FULL AND EQUAL INVOLVEMENT IN SOCIETY.
(B) STRUCTURAL -- INEQUALITIES ROOTED IN
THE SYSTEM-WIDE OPERATION OF A SOCIETY THAT EXCLUDE SUBSTANTIAL NUMBERS OF
MEMBERS OF PARTICULAR GROUPS FROM SIGNIFICANT PARTICIPATION IN MAJOR SOCIAL
INSTITUTIONS.
IMPORTANT SOCIOLOGICAL CAVEAT: SINCE THE DOMINANT WHITE SOCIETY IN CANADA TEND TO SEE RACISM AS AN INDIVIDUAL PHENOMENON, STEMMING FROM PERSONAL PREJUDICE, AND EXPRESSED ACTS OF INTOLERANCE =====> THERE IS AN ASSUMPTION THAT RACISM IS THE RESULT OF IGNORANCE OR MALEVOLENCE ON THE PART OF INDIVIDUALS, AND THAT EDUCATION IS ALL THAT IS REQUIRED FOR AMIELIORATION ======> MANY SOCIOLOGISTS SUGGEST THAT THE ANALYSIS OF RACISM THAT IS INHERENT IN THESE EFFORTS AND PRACTICES {EG. FOCUS ON MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION AND INCREASING INTERCULTURAL CONTACTS} ARE DOOMED TO BE OF LIMITED VALUE AND SUCCESS, AND CONTRIBUTES TO FURTHER “MYSTIFICATION” OF SYSTEMIC RACISM =======> MOREOVER, IT IS NOTHING MORE THAN THE ATTEMPT TO “GIVE THE APPEARANCE OF CHANGE WITHOUT CHANGING THE STATUS QUO” (BOLARIA AND LI 1985:29).
IMMIGRATION PROJECT -- ON
RACISM
"OLD
FASHION RACISM" -- OVERT, CONSCIOUS AND DELIBERATE ACTS OF
INTOLERANCE THAT HARMFULLY IMPACT MEMBERS OF A SUBORDINATE GROUP, PERCEIVED TO
BE CULTURALLY AND BIOLOGICALLY INFERIOR.
EX:
CANADA'S EARLY IMMIGRATION POLICIES WERE DESCRIBED AS EXCLUSIONARY POLICIES
DIRECTED AT ASIAN POPULATIONS INCLUDING CHINESE, JAPANESE, AND EAST INDIANS AS
WELL AS JEWS -- WHITE ETHNICS WERE THE PREFERRED SETTLERS.
CHANGES
TO THE IMMIGRATION ACT IN 1962 INVOLVING IMPLEMENTATION OF A POINTS SYSTEM
OPENED THE DOOR TO IMMIGRATION ON A NON-RACIAL BASIS.
EX:
"THE CHINESE EXCLUSION ACT" WAS INSTITUTED IN 1885 (AFTER THOUSANDS
OF CHINESE LABOURER WERE BROUGHT TO BUILD THE TRANS-ATLANTIC RAILROAD (UNDER
THE ACT THE THREAT OF BEING OVERRUN BY "THE YELLOW PERIL" PROMPTED A
HEAD TAX OF UP TO $500. IN 1923, THE ACT WAS REVISED TO FORBID CHINESE
IMMIGRATION ENTIRELY, AND IT WAS IN EFFECT UNTIL 1947).
"NEW
RACISM" -- SOPHISTICATED AND DISGUISED (HOSTILITY
TOWARDS RACIAL MINORITIES THAT GOES UNDETECTED) RESPONSE TO THE GROWING
PRESENCE OF INCREASINGLY ASSERTIVE RACIAL MINORITIES WHOSE ACTIVITIES AND
DEMANDS ARE CRITICIZED AS A THREAT TO THE NATIONAL IDENTITY AND SOCIAL
HARMONY.
EX:
CHINESE BOAT PEOPLE IN B.C.
QUES: IS
THERE A DETECTABLE NEW RACISM IN IMMIGRATION? IS THERE SUPPRESSED RACIAL
HOSTILITY?
SURELY
CANADA HAS THE RIGHT TO PROTECT ITS BORDERS AGAINST ILLEGAL MIGRANTS? PROTECT
POPULATION FROM COMMUNICABLE DISEASE?
WHAT
IS THE KEY TO UNDERSTANDING WHERE PROTECTION STARTS AND ENDS, AND WHERE RACISM
BEGINS?
HOW
DO OUTSIDERS THREATEN THE PUBLIC?
EX:
"THE INDIAN ACT" PROVIDES ANOTHER EXAMPLE OF OLD-FASHIONED (AND DE
JURE) DISCRIMINATION. ACCORDING TO THE ACT, STATUS INDIAN WOMEN LOST THEIR
"STATUS RIGHTS" IF THEY MARRIED SOMEONE WHO WAS NOT A STATUS INDIAN,
WHILE STATUS INDIAN MEN DID NOT.
AN
AMENDMENT TO THE INDIAN ACT IN 1985 ENDED THE LEGALIZED SEXUAL AND RACIAL
DISCRIMINATION (UNDER SECTION 15 OF THE CHARTER OF RIGHTS AND FREEDOMS
PROHIBITING DISCRIMINATION ON THE BASIS OF RACE, ETHNICITY OR ORIGIN).
OUTLINE OF THE MANIFESTATIONS OF RACISM IDENTIFIED IN
MODERN SOCIAL LIFE
"OLD FASHION
RACISM" -- OVERT, CONSCIOUS AND DELIBERATE ACTS OF INTOLERANCE THAT HARMFULLY
IMPACT MEMBERS OF A SUBORDINATE GROUP, PERCEIVED TO BE CULTURALLY AND
BIOLOGICALLY INFERIOR.
"OVERT" OR
AVERSIVE [HATE] RACISM (SOME TIMES REFERRED TO AS "REDNECK"
RACISM. IT INVOLVES BLATANT ACTS OF INTOLERANCE -- RACIAL SLURS,
CROSS-BURNINGS);
"NEW RACISM" -- SOPHISTICATED AND
DISGUISED (HOSTILITY TOWARDS RACIAL MINORITIES THAT GOES UNDETECTED) RESPONSE
TO THE GROWING PRESENCE OF INCREASINGLY ASSERTIVE RACIAL MINORITIES WHOSE
ACTIVITIES AND DEMANDS ARE CRITICIZED AS A THREAT TO THE NATIONAL IDENTITY
AND SOCIAL HARMONY.
"COVERT"
RACISM" (SUBTLE, COMPLEX SOPHISTICATED RESPONSES IN SOCIETY IMPACTING
STRUCTURES AT THE INSTITUTIONAL LEVEL);
"POLITE" OR
"FRIENDLY" RACISM (A CONTRIVED ATTEMPT TO DISGUISE A DISLIKE OF
OTHERS THROUGH BEHAVIOR THAT OUTWARDLY IS NO PREJUDICIAL IN APPEARANCE (EX:
OFTEN MANIFEST ITSELF IN CODED OR EUPHEMISTIC LANGUAGE --"THOSE
PEOPLE" -- MASKS INNER FEELINGS);
"LIBERAL" RACISM (IS DISTINGUISHED BY A
"TOLERANCE DICHOTOMY" IN PUBLIC AND PRIVATE LIFE -- E.G., SUPPORT FOR
LIBERAL CAUSES, BUT YOU CAN'T MARRY MY DAUGHTER; MARCH FOR CIVIL RIGHTS BUT
RESISTS VISIBLE MINORITIES MOVING IN MY NEIGHBORHOOD);
INFERENTIAL RACISM (REPRESENTATIONS OF EVENTS
AND SITUATIONS RELATED TO RACE THAT HAVE RACIST PREMISES AND PROPOSITIONS
INSCRIBED IN THEM, AND FORMULATED AS A SET OF UNQUESTIONED ASSUMPTIONS -- E.G.
SRI LANKAN STUDY);
SUBLIMINAL [OR NON-RACIST]
RACISM (LOCATED
AMONG INDIVIDUALS IN DOMINANT CULTURE WHO ABHOR OPENLY DISCRIMINATORY
TREATEMENT OF MINORITIES, BUT OFTEN HAVE "LOFTY" OPPOSITION TO
PROGRESSIVE MINORITY POLICIES AND PROGRAMS [BASED ON FIXED, INFLEXIBLE,
"UNQUESTIONABLE" MAINSTREAM VALUES]);
DYSCONSCIOUS RACISM (IS A FORM OF RACISM THAT
TACITLY ACCEPTS DOMINANT WHITE NORMS AND PRIVILEGES. IT IS NOT THE ABSENCE OF
CONSCIOUSNESS [THAT IS, UNCONSCIOUSNESS] BUT AN IMPAIRED CONSCIOUSNESS OR
DISTORTED WAY OF THINKING ABOUT RACE AS COMPARED TO, FOR EXAMPLE, CRITICAL
CONSCIOUSNESS – EX: JOB SEARCH SEARCH COMMITTEES THAT, WITHOUT INTENDING TO,
LOOK FOR “AFRO-SAXONS” OR “HISPANIC-SAXONS.”);
DEMOCRATIC RACISM (CONSISTS OF A COMMITMENT
TO A DEMOCRATIC SOCIETY AND EGALITARIAN VALUES OF FAIRNESS, JUSTICE, AND
EQUALITY -- CO-EXISTING WITH NEGATIVE FEELINGS ABOUT PEOPLE OF COLOUR;
REVERSE RACISM (REFERS TO DISCRIMINATION
AGAINST MEMBERS OF THE DOMINATE GROUP -- MANIFESTED IN "DOUBLE
STANDARDS" THAT ARE THOUGHT TO FAVOUR MINORITIES).
...
{{{SOCIOLOGICAL RULE: IS THE DOMINANT RESPONSE TO SUBDOMINANT INTERACTION BASED ON A THREAT TO STATUS QUO BALANCE OF POWER AND CHALLENGE TO THE STATUS QUO.}}}}