REVIEW – JUNE 07
THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF
STATE FINANCE
AK/SPPA
4115 6.0A
{SYNOPSIS AND GENERAL OVERVIEW: THIS SECTION OF THE COURSE HAS BEEN DIVIDED INTO
FOUR SUBJECT AREAS: (1) CANADA'S IMMIGRATION AND REFUGEE SYSTEM, (2) CANADIAN
MULTICULTUALISM {THE DIALECTICAL PROJECT OF DIVERSITY AND INCLUSIVITY}, (3)
RACE AND RACISM {THE BALANCE OF POWER IN CONTEMPORARY POLITICAL ECONOMY}, AND
(4) THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM {INSTITUTIONAL STRUCTURES AND INEQUALITIES IN
CLASS, RACE AND GENDER}.
{*THE
SOCIOLOGICAL KEY ====> IN THIS SECTION, OUR JOB AS STUDENTS HAS BEEN
TO BEGIN TO “INTERROGATE SOCIAL FACTS” OF POLITICAL ECONOMY --- LIKE RACIAL
OPPRESSION, {SEXISM AND GENDERISM NEXT SECTION} --- IN ORDER TO UNMASK THE
CONTINGENT, CONSTRUCTED AND THUS TRANSFORMABLE NATURE OF CANADA}
PART I --- IMMIGRATION AND
MULTICULTUALISM IN CANADA:
[DIVERSIFICATION
THROUGH IMMIGRATION + THE CONSTRUCTIVE
MANAGEMENT OF OUR DIFFERENCES]
1) IMMIGRATION STREAMS
THE
THREE PILLARS OR STREAMS OF IMMIGRATION
ECONOMIC CLASS - (A)
ENTREPRENEURS
(B) INVESTORS
(C) SELF-EMPLOYED
FAMILY CLASS - (A)
FAMILY SPONSORSHIPS
(B) INDEPENDENT IMMIGRANT APPLICATIONS *(INCLUDES
ASSISTED RELATIVES/ SELECTED WORKERS = TECHNICALLY ECONOMIC CLASS)
HUMANITARIAN (A)
REFUGEES (PERSECUTED ON THE BASIS OF (i) POLITICAL ASSOCIATION, (ii) MEMBERSHIP
IN A SOCIAL GROUP, (iii) RELIGIOUS AFFILIATION, (iv) NATIONALITY, OR (v) RACE).
(B) PERSONS ELIGIBLE UNDER
SPECIAL HUMANITARIAN MEASURES.
TEMPORARY (A)
WORK VISA
RESIDENTS - (B)
LIVE-IN CAREGIVERS
(C) STUDENT
(D) VISITORS
2) THE SOCIOLOGY OF IMMIGRATION
A) INSTRUMENT OF
NATION-BUILDING == THEORETICAL UNDERPINNINGS; CANADIAN SOCIETY'S AVOWED
COMMITMENT TO ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND PROSPERITY PLUS COMPASSION AND
GENEROSITY TO THOSE IN NEED OF PROTECTION AND SANCTUARY.
B) POLICIES
AND PRACTICE == FILM: “WHO GETS IN.” ===> ECOMONIC, FAMILY AND
HUMANITARIAN
C) RELATIONS
OF POWER AND SOCIAL STRATIFICATION {REFLECTED IN SOCIAL PROBLEMS LIKE
“FOREIGN CREDENTIALISM;” WOMEN OF COLOUR “JOB-GHETTOS”.
D) PARADIGM
OF TRANSNATIONALISM {READINGS}====> EXAMINING THE NEW PROCESSES OF IMMIGRATION
SETTLEMENT, ADAPTION AND INTEGRATION.
3) CRITIQUES OF IMMIGRATION:
INTERROGATING THE SOCIAL FACTS
A)
THE IMMGRATION AND REFUGEE SYSTEM AS SEXIST,
RACIST AND CLASSIST.
B) THE
CANADIAN STATE APPARATUS IS ACTUALLY DESIGNED TO KEEP THE MOST
VULNERABLE PEOPLE OUT OF CANADA,
CONTRARY TO ITS THEORETICAL UNDERPINNINGS AND/OR AVOWED PRINCIPLES.}}
[SYSTEM DISCRIMINATORY - NOT
NECESSARILY EXPLICITLY OR DELIBERATELY BUT THROUGH APPLICATION OF SEEMINGLY
NEUTRAL RULES THAT NEGATIVELY IMPACT THE MOST VULNERABLE]
DEFINITION OF TERMS:
MIGRANT (SOMEONE WHO COMES TO
CANADA TO WORK == EX: AGRICULTURAL WORKERS; LIVE-IN CAREGIVERS)
IMMIGRANT (PERSON BORN OUTSIDE CANADA (“FOREIGN BORN”) SEEKING OR HAS RECEIVED
PERMANENT RESIDENT STATUS.
CONVENTION REFUGEE (ANY PERSON UNDER THE PROVISIONS OF THE UNITED
NATIONS CONVENTION RELATEDTO THE STATUS OF REFUGEES SIGNED AT THE GENEVA
CONVENTION ON JULY 28, 1951, AND INCLUDES THE PROTOCOL THERETO SIGNED AT NEW
YORK ON JANUARY 31, 1967) === {POST-WORLD WAR II EUROPEAN MODEL WHILE TODAY
REFUGEES COME FROM THE DEVELOPING WORLD}
LANDING (MEANS LAWFUL PERMISSION O COME INTO CANADA TO ESTABLISH PERMANENT
RESIDENCE)
CANADIAN CITIZEN (MEANS A PERSON WHO IS A CITIZEN WITHIN THE MEANING
OF THE CITIZENSHIP ACT.
CANADIAN CONTEXT FOR IMMIGRATION
== CONTEXT: IMMIGRATION IS NECESSARY TO ECONOMY --- {“RESERVE
ARMY” COMPRISED OF HIGHLY SKILLED AND TECHNICHAL WORKERS, ON THE ONE
HAND === AND ON THE OTHER HAND, A LARGE SEGMENT OF NEWCOMERS WHO
TEND TO BE RELEGATED TO THE REALM OF “DIRTY WORK” {WORK CANADIAN CITIZENS DON'T WANT TO DO} ---
(I) UNSKILLED (AGRICULTURAL WORKERS, LIVE-IN CAREGIVERS),
(II) UNDERGROUND – BLACKMARKET-- WORK THAT KEEPS THE ECONOMY AFLOAT,
AND
(III) VULUNERABLE-INDENTURED WORKFORCE (SWEATSHOPS LABOUR, IN-HOME LABOUR AND “SEX-TYPE”
LABOUR. [EX: THE CONTROVERSIAL “STRIPPER VISA PROGRAM” THAT WAS
INTRODUCED TO RECTIFY A SHORTAGE OF EXOTIC DANCERS IN CANADA. RECORDS SHOW THAT
MORE THAN 550 TEMPORARY VISAS WERE GRANTED TO ROMANIANS IN 05 — MORE THAN 80
PER CENT OF THOSE WHO QUALIFIED UNDER THE PROGRAM.]).
B) NEXT,
WE CONSIDER {FILM/READINGS} THE WAYS THE CANADIAN STATE APPARATUS IS ACTUALLY
DESIGNED TO KEEP THE MOST VULNERABLE PEOPLE OUT OF CANADA, CONTRARY TO ITS THEORETICAL UNDERPINNINGS AND/OR AVOWED PRINCIPLES.
STRATEGIES OF EXCLUSION ===
I)
REFUGEE DETERMINATION (PROCESS AS)
EUROCENTRIC AND ANDROCENTRIC BIAS;
II)
VISITOR'S VISA REQUIREMENTS COUNTRIES
LIST DEVELOPING COUNTRIES};
III)
GOVERNMENTAL INTERDICITON {FINES FOR
AIRLINES/ UNDOCUMENTED MIGRANTS};
IV)
ADMISSIBILITY CRITERIA/REQUIREMENTS;
V)
VISA OFFICE/EMBASSY PLACEMENTS
ARBITRARINESS OF THE SYSTEM[[?]] ===
I) REFUGEE
DETERMINATION – EUROCENTRIC AND ANDROCENTRIC FRAMEWORK IS ABSENT TO ISSUES OF
SEXUAL ORIENTATION, GENDER, ENVIRONMENTAL DISASTER/DISLOCATION, WAR
DISLOCATION, ETC. -- THESE ABSENCES MAKE IT HARDER FOR CERTAIN GROUPS OF PEOPLE
TO COME TO CANADA BY “DELEGITIMIZING” THEIR PLIGHTS {BOGUS REFUGEES}.
II) FAMILY
CLASS --- “FEMINIZED” BY VIRTUE OF FACT THAT THE SPONSORED NEWCOMER IS
USUALLY A WOMAN == MALE SPONSORS FAMILY, LEAVING WOMEN FINANCIALLY DEPENDENT ON
MALE SPONSORS === THE UNBALANCED POWER RELATIONSHIPS IN SPONSORSHIP PROGRAM
PUTS WOMEN AT RISK.
III) INDEPENDENT
CLASS --- “MASCULINIZED” BY VIRTUE OF THE FACT A POINT SYSTEM THAT
EMPHASIZES ADMISSION CRITERIA (AGE/ EDUCATION/ LANGUAGE/ WORK EXPERIENCE/
ADAPTABILITY, ETC.) THAT ARE THE PURVIEW OF “MALE ROLES” IN MANY SOCIETIES.
SOME EFFECT OF SEXIST, RACIST AND CLASSIST IMMIGRATION POLICIES
(I)
BARRIERS CREATE ILLEGALITY AND MAKE
THE VULNERABLE HAVE TO TAKE BAD JOBS.
(II) THE
PHENOMENON OF GLOBAL MIGRATION IS CAUSED BY FOREIGN POLICY, IMPERIALISM AND
GLOBLAL CAPITALISM. [I + II ='S VICIOUS SPIRAL]
STRATEGIES OF RESISTANCE
[WAYS PEOPLE RESIST THE
DRACONIAN ASPECTS OF CANADIAN IMMIGRATION SYSTEM]
(I)
INTERNATIONAL ACTIVIST MOVEMENTS
(E.G., “OPEN BORDERS” POLICY/ PHILOSOPHY).
(II) LOCAL
COMMUNITY ORGANIZATIONS (E.G., CANADIAN COUNCIL FOR REFUGEES {PUBLIC POLICY
INITIATIVES/ RESEARCH} --- CANADIAN CHURCHES “SANCTUARY” ISSUES/NEGOTIATIONS
WITH MINISTER AND GOVERNMENT)
D)
PARADIGM OF TRANSNATIONALISM
I) SOCIAL
PRACTICES OF IMMIGRANTS AND ETHNIC GROUPS SEEM INCREASINGLY TO REFLECT A
TRANSNATIONAL APPROACH TO SOCIAL LIFE AND CITIZENSHIP.
II) IMMIGRANTS
ARE INCREASINGLY CHARACTERIZED NOT AS BEING UPROOTED BUT RATHER AS
MAINTAINING LINKS TO THEIR HOMELAND THROUGH DEVELOPED NETWORKS, ACTIVITIES,
PATTERNS OF LIVING AND IDEOLOGIES THAT SPAN NATIONAL BORDERS (BASCH,
SCHILLER AND BLANC 1994)
III) RESULT: ISSUES OF ETHNIC AND RACIAL
INEQUALITY, EXPLOITATION, AND DISCRIMINATION HAVE BECOME MORE COMPLEX AS THE
CLASS, ETHNIC AND RACIAL COMPOSITION OF IMMIGRATION FLOW TO CANADA HAS BROADENED
=== [THEREFORE, IT IS SUGGESTED, WE AS STUDENTS NEED A BROADER LENS TO INCLUDE
ISSUES OF TRANSNATIONAL CITIZENSHIP AND IDENTITY {TRANSNATIONAL-
ENTREPRENEURSHIP, -MEDIA, -TERRORISM, GLOBALIZED/ORGANIZED CRIME {DRUG TRADE
/ WEAPONS TRAFFICKING /MONEY LAUNDERING / BANK FRAUD /MIGRANT SMUGGLING , ETC}
– RESEARCH THAT LOOKS BEYOND THE BOUNDRIES OF CANADA]
2)
MULTICULTRUALISM
A) MULTICULTUALISM AS A
VARIANT OF CULTURAL PLURALISM AND THE PROBLEM OF SOCIAL COHESION
[WE BEGIN OUR DISCUSSION OF MULTICULTURALISM IN THE CONTEXT OF
CHALLENGES OF DEALING CREATIVELY WITH THE INESCAPABLE REALITY OF “DIFFERENCE”
AND OF FINDING GROUNDS FOR A UNITY-IN-DIVERSITY]
{{{THE PROBLEM COMPLEX OF THE 21ST CENTURY DWELLERS IS : HOW
CAN WE TAKE DIFFERENCES INTO ACCOUNT? }}}
WHAT
DOES IT MEAN TO TAKE DIFFERENCES SERIOUSLY? {MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION
EXERCISE – ETHNOCENTRISM VS. ALTRU-CENTRISM?}
B) THE MULTICULTURAL IMAGINATION === I.E., INDIVIDUALS WHO
ARE MULTICULTURALLY IMAGINATIVE POSSESS THE ABILITY TO TAKE DIFFERENCES SERIOUSLY
AND TAKE DIFFERENCES INTO ACCOUNT WHEN TRYING TO SEE THE WORLD FROM THE
PERSPECTIVE OF OTHERS ==== {ERGO}
THE
MULTICULTURAL IMAGINATION LEGITIMATES THE DYNAMIC RICHNESS AND RESONANCE OF
DIVERSITY
AS A PRACTICAL
MATTER THIS MEANS === **** EMBRACING OF THE POLITICS OF DIVERSITY === COUNTER-HEGEMONY INVOLVES THE DIALECTICS OF INJUSTICE AND
INCLUSION: FRAMING INJUSTICE AND PROMOTING INCLUSION]
C) OFFICIAL CANADIAN VERSION OF MULTICULTURALISM
THE CANADIAN
MULTICULTURAL ACT OF 1988 -- STATED THAT “ALL CANADIANS ARE FULL AND EQUAL
PARTNERS IN CANADIAN SOCIETY.”
THE DEPARTMENT
OF MULTICULTUALISM AND CITIZENSHIP -- WAS ESTABLISHED IN 1991 WITH THE GOAL OF
ENCOURAGING ETHNIC MINORITIES TO PARTICIPATE FULLY IN ALL ASPECTS OF CANADIAN
LIFE AND AT THE SAME TIME MAINTAIN THEIR DISTINCT ETHNIC IDENTITIES AND
CULTURAL PRACTICES.
THE OBJECT OF MULTICULTURALISM IS TO "PROMOTE UNITY
THROUGH DIVERSITY".
D) MULTICULTURAL
DISCOURSES
LEVELS
OF MEANING OF MULTICULTURALISM
|
As Fact |
As Ideology |
As Policy |
As Practice |
As Critical Discourse |
|
Descriptive and empirical statement of what is [descriptive reality] |
Prescriptive and projective statement of what ought to be in terms of
ideas and ideals |
Explicit government initiatives to foster social equality, cultural
diversity, and national interests |
Putting multicultural-ism into practice at two levels: 1) political 2) minority women and men |
Challenge, resist, and transform the distribution of cultural power in
society [institutional power-sharing between ethnoracial groups] |
E) PRIMARY
POLITICAL DISCOURSES
CONSENSUAL AND CRITICAL MULTICULTURALISM
CANADIAN MULTICULTURALISM
HAS BEEN CALLED “CONSENSUS MULTICULTURALISM” IN THAT IT FOCUSES ON INCLUSIVENESS
WITHIN A PREEXISTING FRAMEWORK
[ON THE OTHER HAND ---
“CRITICAL MULTICULTUALISM” IS AN COUNTER-HEGEMONIC PROJECT (LIKE
POSTMODERNISM) THAT SEEK A COMPREHENSIVE CRITQUE OF DOMINATION AND
COMPREHENSIVE NETWORKS OF ACTIVISM.]
CRITICAL MULTICULTUALISM
EMPHASIZES THE PRINCIPLE THAT PEOPLE ARE FUNDAMENTALLY EQUAL, AND MAKES THIS
THE BASIS FOR CHALLENGING HOW POWER AND PRIVILEGE ARE DISTRIBUTED AND HOW
HISTORY AND LITERATURE ARE TAUGHT.
CRITICAL
MULTICULTURALISM IS A DISCOURSE[S] THAT CHALLENGES, RESISTS, AND TRANSFORMS
OTHER FORMS === IT CHALLENGES AUTHORITY, RESISTS WHITE HEGEMONY, AND
TRANSFORMS SOCIETY BY CREATING SPACE FOR OTHER CULTURES.
IT
REFUSES TO TREAT EUROPEAN CULTURE (I.E., WHITE, CAPITALIST, MALE-CENTRED, EXCLUSIONIST
CULTURE) AS “NORMAL” CULTURE [GIROUX, 1994, EISENSTEIN, 1996; STAM, 1997] . IT
QUESTIONS THE RIGHT OF EUROCENTRIC CULTURE TO DOMINATE OTHER CULTURES IN A WAY
THAT FLATTENS DIVERSITY, WHILE PRIVILEGING EUROPEAN NORMS AS NECESSARY AND
SUPERIOR [STAM, 1997]. AND IT QUESTIONS CULTURAL AND POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS
THAT ELEVATE “WHITE” STANDARDS AND VALUES OVER THOSE OF OTHER CULTURES
{D'SOUZA, 1995].
IT
SEES OLD-STYLE, CONSENSUS MULTICULTUALISM AS A FORM OF PLURALISM THAT DENIES
THE HISTORICAL IMPORTANCE OF POWER RELATIONS; IN CONTRAST, CRITIAL
MULTICULTUALISM SETS OUT TO PROMOTE HISTORICAL MEMORY, NATIONAL IDENTITY, AND
THE POLITICS OF DIFFERENCE [GIROUX. 1994:336].
CRITICAL
MULTICULTURALISM CALLS FOR A PROFOUND TRANSFORMATION OF POWER RELATIONS. IT SEEKS
TO MOBILIZE MARGINALIZED GROUPS, TRANSFORM INSTITUTIONS TO CREATE SOCIAL AND
CULTURAL SPACE, AND DISMANTLE DOMINANT INSTITUTIONAL STRUCTURES.
3) RACE AND RACISM
FORMS OF RACISM
RACISM {AS
A PROCESS} =’S PREJUDICE + DISCRIMINATION + POWER [TO CONTROL, EXCLUDE AND/OR
EXPLOIT]
RACISM – {AS AN ACT} IS THE DENIAL
OF EQUAL TREATMENT OR ACCESS TO VALUED RESOURCES ON THE BASIS OF RACE.
MOST PEOPLE TEND TO THINK OF
RACISM ONLY IN TERMS OF AN "OVERT ACT" OF INTOLERANCE AGAINST PEOPLE
OR PROPERTY, LIKE A "HATE CRIME" -- EX: ANTI-SEMITIC OR ANTI-BLACK
BEHAVIOR.
BUT, SOCIOLOGISTS HAVE FOUND
THAT RACISM OPERATES IN MANY FORMS [MULTIDIMENSIONAL], AND AT COVERT AND OVERT
LEVELS:
(A)
EXPRESSIONS CAN BE WILFUL, DELIBERATE,
CONSCIOUS, OR THEY CAN BE INDIRECT, UNINTENTIONAL, AND UNCONSCIOUS.
(B) THESE
EXPRESSIONS ARE REFLECTED IN INDIVIDUAL ATTITUDES AND BELIEF SYSTEMS AND IN
INSTITUTIONAL AND SOCIETAL POLICIES AND REGULATIONS.
SOCIOLOGIST SPEAK OF THESE
DIFFERENT FORMS OF RACISM AS:
(1)
INDIVIDUAL RACISM: IS A FORM OF
RACIAL DISCRIMINATION THAT STEMS FROM CONSCIOUS, PERSONAL PREJUDICE. (EX:
SLURS, DEROGATORY BEHAVIOURS).
(2)
EVERYDAY RACISM -- INVOLVES THE
MANY AND SOMETIMES SMALL WAYS IN WHICH RACISM IS EXPERIENCED BY PEOPLES OF
COLOUR IN THEIR INTERACTIONS WITH THE DOMINANT WHITE GROUP. (EX: GLANCES,
GESTURES, FORMS OF SPEECH AND PHYSICAL MOVEMENTS).
(3)
CULTURAL RACISM -- MEANING
BASICALLY THAT WE CAN CONCEIVE OF DISCRIMINATION ON THE BASIS OF ONE'S CULTURAL
IDEAS, NORMS, VALUES AND MORAES.
(4) SYSTEMIC RACISM:
(A)
INSTITUTIONAL -- IS MADE UP OF
THE RULES, PROCEDURES,AND PRACTICES THAT DELIBERATELY PREVENT MINORITIES FORM
HAVING FULL AND EQUAL INVOLVEMENT IN SOCIETY.
(B) STRUCTURAL
RACISM -- INEQUALITIES ROOTED IN THE SYSTEM-WIDE OPERATION OF A SOCIETY
THAT EXCLUDE SUBSTANTIAL NUMBERS OF MEMBERS OF PARTICULAR GROUPS FROM
SIGNIFICANT PARTICIPATION IN MAJOR SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS.
IMPORTANT SOCIOLOGICAL
CAVEAT: SINCE THE DOMINANT WHITE
SOCIETY IN CANADA TEND TO SEE RACISM AS AN INDIVIDUAL PHENOMENON, STEMMING
FROM PERSONAL PREJUDICE, AND EXPRESSED ACTS OF INTOLERANCE =====> THERE IS
AN ASSUMPTION THAT RACISM IS THE RESULT OF IGNORANCE OR MALEVOLENCE ON
THE PART OF INDIVIDUALS, AND THAT EDUCATION IS ALL THAT IS REQUIRED FOR AMIELIORATION
======> MANY SOCIOLOGISTS SUGGEST THAT THE ANALYSIS OF RACISM THAT IS
INHERENT IN THESE EFFORTS AND PRACTICES {EG. FOCUS ON MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION
AND INCREASING INTERCULTURAL CONTACTS} ARE DOOMED TO BE OF LIMITED VALUE AND
SUCCESS, AND CONTRIBUTES TO FURTHER “MYSTIFICATION” OF SYSTEMIC RACISM
=======> MOREOVER, IT IS NOTHING MORE THAN THE ATTEMPT TO “GIVE THE
APPEARANCE OF CHANGE WITHOUT CHANGING THE STATUS QUO” (BOLARIA AND LI 1985:29).
4 THE CRIMINAL
JUSTICE SYSTEM:
[INEQUALITIES IN
CLASS, RACE AND GENDER]
CLASS ====> CRITICAL
CRIMINOLOGISTS ESSENTIALLY AGREE THAT THE COST TO SOCIETY OF CORPORATE CRIME
FAR EXCEEDS THAT OT STREET CRIME ===> YET, THERE IS DIFFERENTIAL SENTENCING
FOR STREET CRIME INVOLVING POOR AN WORKING-CLASS OFFENDERS AS COMPARED WITH
MIDDLE-CLASS OR WEALTHIER OFFENDERS
{i} THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM {OFTEN} REFUSES TO LABEL AND TREAT AS CRIME A
LARGE NUMBER OF ACTS OF THE RICH THAT PRODUCE AS MUCH OR MORE DAMAGE TO LIFE
AND LIMB AS THE CRIMES OF THE POOR {{E.X., REFUSAL
TO MAKE WORKPLACES SAFE, REFUSAL TO CURTAIL DEADLY POLLUTION, PROMOTION OF
UNNECESSARY SURGERY, AND PRESCRIPTIONS FOR UNNECESSARY DRUGS, CAUSE
OCCUPATIONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS TO INNOCENT MEMBERS OF THE PUBLIC AND
PRODUCE AS MUCH DEATH, DESTRUCTION, AND FINANCIAL LOSS AS THE SO-CALLED “STREET
CRIME” OF THE POOR. HOWEVER THESE CRIMES OF THE WELL -OFF, OR [“SUITE”
OR “ELITE' CRIME,” IS RARELY TREATED AS SEVERE AS THOSE OF THE POOR}}.
{ii} EVEN AMONG THE ACTS TREATED AS CRIMES, THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM IS
BIASED FROM START TO FINISH IN A WAY THAT GUARANTEES THAT, FOR THE SAME CRIMES,
MEMBER OF LOWER CLASSES ARE MUCH MORE LIKELY THAN MEMBERS OF THE MIDDLE AND
UPPER CLASSES TO BE ARRESTED, CONVICTED, AND IMPRISONED – THUS PROVIDING LIVING "PROOF" THAT CRIME IS A THREAT FROM
THE POOR.
RACE =====> THE
OVERREPRESENTATION OF ABORIGNAL PEOPLES IN THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM IS ONE
LEGACY OF THE DESTRUCTION AND DISLOCATION OF INDIGENOUS PEOPLES THAT TOOK PLACE
UNDER “EUROPEAN COLONIALISM”
{i} AND OVERINVOLVEMENT IN CRIME IS ONE OF THE SOCIAL PROBLEMS THAT
HAVE BEEN GENERATED BY THE “PASSIVE GENOCIDE” PERPETUATED AGAINST
ABORIGIANL PEOPLES, LARGELY UNDER TH RHETORIC AND GUISE OF “ASSIMILATION.”
{ii} THE
OVER-REPRESENTATION OF ABORIGINALS IN THE JUSTICE SYSTEM TENDS TO INDICATE THE
EXISTENCE OF “SOCIAL RANTHER THAN “CRIMINAL” PROBLEMS {THE MOST CENTRAL SOCIAL
PROBLEMS IN THE AREA OF CRIME AND ITS TREATMENT ARE THE ONES THAT SOCIETY
CREATES FOR ABORIGNIAL INDIVIDUALS – NOT THOSE CREATED BY ANY INDIVIDUAL
CRIMINAL PATHOLOGY ===> THE PROBLEM IS “RACISM.”
{iii} THE PUBLIC PERSCEPTION OF ABORIGINAL PEOPLE
AS “DRUNKS,” “LAZY,” AND “CRIMINAL” HAS LONG CONFUSED SYMPTOMS WITH THE
UNDERLYING CAUSES OF THESE SOCIAL PROBLEMS =====> ALLOWING FOR A ONE-WAY
STREET OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE POLICIES AND PROGRAMS THAT ADDRESS THE “PROBLEMS OF
CIRME” WITHOUT SERIOUSLY CHALLENGING THE STATUS QUO OF THE CANDIAN POLITICAL
ECONOMY =====>
{vi} SOCIOLOGICAL FORMULATION :{POWER/ CULTURE/ IDEOLOGY COMPONENTS OF “THE INDIAN
PROBLEM” OR “INDIANS IN CONFLICT WITH THE LAW”} THE CRIMINALIZATION OF A GROUP
IS DEPENDENT ON THOSE IN POWER DEVELOPING STRONG IDEOLOGIES AND
TYPIFICATIONS THAT JUSTIFY THEIR CONTROL OVER SUBJECT POPULATIONS
1.
ABORIGINAL POLICING [IN 1992, THE FEDERAL GOV'T ANNOUNCED A POLICY OF TRANSFERRING ALL
ON-RESERVE POLICING TO BANDS BY YEAR 2000].
2.
INDIGENIZATION [ATTEMPTS TO MAKE CURRENT SYSTEM LESS ALIENATING WITHOUT CHANGING
STRUCTURE AND CONTROL]
3.
INDIAN ACT PROVISIONS FOR ON-RESERVE JUSTICE INITIATIVES [ON-RESERVE COURTS, ETC]
4.
DIVERSION PROGRAMS AND RELATED ACTIVITIES [ALTERNATIVES TO JUSTICE
SYSTEM PROCESS, SUCH AS, PRE- OR POST-CHARGE PRE-PLEAD; ABORIGINAL LEGAL
SERVICES OF TORONTO, ETC]
5.
ELDERS PANELS AND SENTENCING CIRCLES [REPLACING “FLY-IN SUITCASE” PUNITIVE
JUSTICE].
6.
YOUTH OFFENDER INITIATIVES. [ALTERNATIVES TO INCARERATION FACILITIES AND
PROGRAMS]
7.
ABORIGINAL INITIATIVES IN PRISON [PROGRAMS DESIGNED TO MEET OFFENDER NEEDS, SUCH AS A
NEW HOLISTIC HEALING FACILITY OPENED NEAR EDMONTON; OR THE ONE AT MAPLE CREEK
FOR FEDERALLY SENTENCED ABORIGINAL WOMEN]. {“SOCIAL ISSUES AND
CONTRADITIONS” PP. 286}
GENDER ======> THE FOCUS ON
CAPITALISM (CLASS) AND PATRIARCHY (GENDER) AND THE MANNER IN WHICH CLASS AND
GENDER RELATIONS ARE MANIFESTED IN THE PRODUCTIVE AND REPORDUCTIVE SPHERES OF
SOCIETY
{i} CANADA [SINCE THE 1970S] IS SAID TO BE
WITNESSING THE RISE OF THE “NEW FEMALE CRIMINAL” AS A RESULT OF THE
ENCROACHMENT OF LIBERATED WOMEN ON A TRADITIONAL MALE PRESERVE ====> SOCIAL
ROLES FOR WOMEN ARE CHANGING, WITH GREATER INVOLVEMENT IN ALL SPHERES,
“LEGITIMATE AND ILEGITIMATE” INCLUDING THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM [THE
CONVERGING ROLE THESIS].
{ii} IN KEEPING WITH THE RAPID INCREASE IN
FEMALE-HEADED HOUSEHOLDS AND THE STRESSES ASSOCIATED WITH POVERTY, GREATER
NUMBERS OF WOMEN ARE BEING CHAGED WITH SHOPLIFTING, CHEQUE FORGING AND WELFARE
FRAUD =====> CONTINUING 3XTENSIVE FEMALE JOB GHETTOIZATION,THE FEMINIZATION
OF POVERTY, AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF A YOUTH CONSUMER MARKEY FREQUENTLY DIRECTED
AT TEENAGE FEMALES ARE BASIC TO THE UNDERSTANDING OF FEMALE PATTERNS AND RATES
OF INVOLVEMENT IN CRIME.
{iii} CENTRAL TO THE SUBJUGATION OF FEMALES IN
PATRIARCHAL AND CAPITALIST SOCIETY IS AN HISTORICAL MIXTURE OF NEGLECT,
OUTRIGHT BARBARISM, AND WELL-MEANING PATERNALISM ====> FEMALE OFFENDERS HAVE
BEEN CONTRADITORILY PORTRAYED AS “POOR AND UNFORTUNATE” WOMEN IN NED OF
PROTECTION AND AS “SCHEMING TEMPTRESSES WHO ARE LAZY AND WORTHLESS”
FEMINIST CRIMINOLOGY ======> WHAT IS NECESSARY IS A DISTINCTLY
“FEMINIST” CRIMINOLOGY WHICH CAN EXPLAIN CRIME IN GENERAL WHILE STUDYING WOMEN
IN PARTICULAR. THE GOAL OF SUCH AN INVESTIGATION SHOULD BE NOT ONLY TO
UNDERSTAND THE INVOLVEMENT OF WOMEN IN OFFICIALLY RECORDED CRIME, BUT TO
UNDERSTAND THE OPPRSSION OF WOMEN, WITHOUT THIS BECOMING A TOOL OF OPPRESSION
ITSELF ======> MANY NOW BELIEVE WHAT IS NEEDED IS A DYNAMIC AND
INTEGRATED ANALYSIS OF THE INTER-RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN PATRIARCHY, CAPITALIST
SOCIETY, AND STATE CONTOL OF WOMEN.