THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION
OF GENDER RELATIONS
FIRST CONSIDER THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
"GENDER" AND "SEX"
WOMEN AND MEN ARE BIOLOGICALLY DIFFERENT -- SPEAK OF EACH OTHER AS THE "OPPOSITE SEX"
-- GOES BEYOND BIOLOGY AND MAKES REFERENCE TO "NATURE VERUS SOCIETY".
THE TERM "SEX" REFERS
TO THE PHYSIOLOGICAL CATEGORIES OF MALE AND FEMALE --
(BIOLOGICAL AND
ANATOMICAL DIFFERENCES)
THE TERM "GENDER"
REFERS TO "SOCIALLY CREATED CATEGORIES OF MASCULINE AND FEMININE"
-- (STATUS-ROLE DISTINCTION).
HOWEVER, IN RECENT YEARS, "GENDER HAS COME TO ENCOMPASS BOTH MEANINGS"!!!!.
(SHOWS THAT IT IS IMPOSSIBLE TO
SEPARATE THE PHYSIOLOGICAL FROM THE CULTURAL).
JOSEPH CAMPBELL SAID: "WOMEN BECOME THE
VEHICLES OF NATURE AND MEN BECOME THE VEHICLES OF SOCIETY".
THIS DICHOTOMY BETWEEN NATURE AND SOCIETY (THINK OF ALL THE CONNOTATIONS?) HAS BEEN DISPLAYED TRADITIONALLY IN SOCIAL PRACTICES AND ORGANIZATIONS --
BUT -- IT IS BEING CHALLENGED TODAY.
ONE OF THE FIRST CHALLENGES - [TWO YEARS BEFORE FRIEDAN'S BOOK] SIMONE DE
BEAUVOIR WROTE "THE SECOND SEX", WHICH
EXAMINED THE SOCIALIZATION OF WOMEN INTO THE ROLE OF "SUBORDINATE
GENDER"
1) BOYS
WERE TAUGHT TO DO AND ACCOMPLISH - WHEREAS GIRLS WERE CONDITIONED TO
"FORFEIT CHOICES" AND POSSIBILITIES, EXCEPT TO LOOK AFTER OTHERS WHILE "KEEPING UNWANTED DIRT AT BAY."
2) THIS
LEADS TO AND IS PART OF A PERVASIVE PRESUMPTION OF WOMEN AS
"NATURAL BORN NURTURERS" THAT FEW DARE TO STEP OUTSIDE FOR FEAR
OF REBUKE OR REJECTION.
EX: DON'T PEOPLE
STILL LOOK A LITTLE ASKANCE AT A WOMEN
WHO DOESN'T HAVE CHILDREN? (SUSPICIOUS OF THE NON-NURTURING WOMAN).
MOREOVER - DON'T MANY WOMEN TODAY STILL STRUGGLE WITH THE "RIGIDLY SCULPTED
GENDER SCRIPTS" ? (DID I LIVE MY LIFE WRONG?)
EX: THE SUBORDINATION OF WOMEN AS "SERVICE-
PROVIDERS" COULD BE DIRECTLY ATTRIBUTED TO THE DEVALUATION OF
WOMEN'S WORK AND WORTH."
IN 1963 BETTY FRIEDAN PUBLISHED
"THE FEMININE MYSTIQUE" - A CRITIQUE OF AMERICAN WOMEN
THAT PROVED TO BE REVOLUTIONARY IN GALVANIZING WOMEN'S CONSCIOUSNESS AND MOBILIZING WOMEN INTO ACTION.
FRIEDAN LABELLED THE UNHAPPINESS AND BOREDOM OF MIDDLE-CLASS WOMEN IN THEIR "COMFORTABLE
CONCENTRATION CAMPS" AS "THE PROBLEM WITH NO NAME."
ACCORDING TO "THE FEMININE MYSTIQUE"
- WOMEN WHO WERE "SEXUALLY PASSIVE" AND "ACCEPTING OF MALE DOMINATION AS NATURAL AND NORMAL"
AND " OBSESSING OVER CHILDREN AND HUSBANDS" AND "FIXATING ON THEIR HOUSEWORK TO THE EXCLUSION
OF LOOKING AFTER THEMSELVES" - SUFFERED FROM "A PROFOUND SENSE
OF EMPTINESS AND DISILLUSIONMENT" - SOMETIMES "MISTAKEN AS CONTENTMENT."
EX: "THE STEPFORD WIFES" - NOW PERCEIVED BY NEW GENERATION OF WOMEN AS A "HORROR MOVIE."
FRANKLY, WOMEN HAVE INSTIGATED A LOT OF SOCIAL
CHANGE SINCE GROUNDBREAKING BOOKS - "THE FEMININE MYSTIQUE" AND "THE SECOND SEX".
EX: NOW WE HAVE -
"YOU'VE COME A LONG WAY BABY" AND "SISTERS ARE DOING IT FOR THEMSELVES" AND [MY
FAVORITE] "GIRL POWER" (DEFUNCT SPICE GIRLS).
SOME WOMEN HAVE COME A LONG WAY "IF" YOU
CONSIDER HOW:
1) WOMEN AND CHILDREN WHERE TRADITIONALLY REGARDED AS MALE PROPERTY FOR HIS
DISPOSAL;
2) RAPE
WITHIN MARRIAGE WAS DISMISSED AS A CONTRADICTION IN TERMS;
3) A WORKING
(WHITE) WOMAN WAS OFTEN CONSIDERED AS IRRESPONSIBLE AND/OR AND EMBARRASSMENT;
4) UNWED
MOTHERS WERE STIGMATIZED AND SHUNNED.
[BUT] - NOW - THE MOVEMENT TOWARD "SOCIAL EQUALITY" PARADIGM (AWAY FROM
"SOCIAL DARWINISM") HAS LEAD TO
LEGAL EQUALITY (AND POLITICAL SAFEGUARDS).
1) COURT
CHALLENGES TO REMOVE SEXIST AND
DISCRIMINATORY BARRIERS.
2) INCREASING
NUMBERS OF WOMEN ARE IN PAID WORK, WHILE WOMEN ARE FORDING THE CORRIDORS OF POWER (IN MANY WORKPLACES).
3) CREATING
A "GENDER QUAKE" BY EXERTING PRESSURE ON ALL INSTITUTIONS TO EMBRACE FEMALE REALITIES.]
4) CONSTRUCTING
MORE "INDIVIDUALIZED" LIVES AROUND THEIR UNIQUE INTERESTS WITH
NOVEL COMBINATIONS OF PARTNERS.
GENDER
[SOCIALIZATION] IS [STILL] A BASIS OF HIERARCHICAL RANKING IN SOCIETY.
- IS THE BASIS OF ONE OF CANADA'S "SOCIAL STRATIFICATION SYSTEMS" IN
SOCIETY -- SOCIAL STRATIFICATION REFERS TO "UNEQUAL PROPERTY, POWER, AND PRESTIGE".
IN OTHER WORDS, GENDER IS A DETERMINANT OF "WHO
GETS WHAT THERE IS TO GET"
"GENDER" IS ONE OF THESE "KEY STATUSES" (AFFECTING IDENTITY) -- THE DIFFERENCE
IN STATUS BETWEEN MALE AND FEMALE IS REAFFIRMED IN SYMBOLIC WAYS CONTINUOUSLY.
EX: (1) MEN ARE EXPECTED TO MARRY WOMEN WHO ARE SHORTER, SMALLER, YOUNGER, LESS EDUCATED, AND WHO HAVE A LOWER OCCUPATIONAL STATUS.
***QUES: WHAT DO YOU THINK WHEN YOU SEE AN OLDER WOMAN WALKING ARM-IN-ARM WITH A YOUNGER MAN?
THEORIES OF GENDER
{ESSENTIALISM VERSUS SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIONISM}
...
I) “ESSENTIALISM”:
(A) FREUD; (B) SOCIOBIOLOGY AND EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY –
INTERPRETATIONS STRONGLY CONNECTED TO THE BIOLOGY OF
HUMAN BEINGS --- EX ====>
BIOLOGICAL DETERMINISM
ANATOMY IS DESTINY -- FREUD: THE WOMEN'S LACK OF THE MALE SEX ORGAN LED INEXORABLY TO
CERTAIN NEGATIVE BEHAVIOURAL CONSEQUENCES FOR THEM.
(1) "PENIS
ENVY" -- WOMEN DEFINE THEMSELVES BY WHAT THEY LACK. THEY COVET WHAT
MEN ARE, AND DEVALUE WHAT THEY ARE. THIS LEADS TO RESENTMENT AND ALIENATION FROM THE VALUE AND STRENGTH OF THEIR OWN "FEMININITY".
(2) IN THIS
SCENARIO -- "RADICAL FEMINISM" IS PENIS ENVY. THESE WOMEN DON'T WANT TO BE "FEMININE" BECAUSE THEY HATE
WHAT FEMININE STANDS FOR. THEY WANT TO BE "MEN MINUS THE PENIS".
(3) THE
SOLUTION (BY IMPLICATION IN THIS SCENARIO) -- WOMEN SHOULD NOT BE
TRYING TO DENY THEIR OWN BIOLOGY (DIFFERENCE), THEY
SHOULD BE ATTEMPTING TO ELEVATE IT -- "ELEVATE THE FEMININE".
(4) EX: --
PEOPLE HAVE ARGUED FOR A DOLLAR VALUE TO BE PLACE ON WORK IN THE HOME. THEY HAVE ORGANIZED CAMPAIGNS TO LOBBY THE GOVERNMENT TO
PAY HOUSEWIVES FOR RAISING THE NATION, ETC.,
CRITIQUE OF ESSENTIALISM:
1) FIRST,
ESSENTIALISTS IGNORE THE HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL VARIABILITY OF GENDER AND SEXUALITY.
2) THE
SECOND PROBLEM WITH ESSENTIALISM IS THAT IT TENDS TO GENERALIZE FROM THE
AVERAGE IGNORING VARIATIONS WITHIN GENDER GROUPS.
3) THIRD,
NO EVIDENCE DIRECTLY SUPPORTS THE ESSENTIALISTS’ MAJOR CLAIMS [DOES PENIS
“SIZE” MATTER?].
4) FINALLY,
ESSENTIALISTS’ EXPLANATION FOR GENDER DIFFERENCES IGNORE
THE ROLE OF POWER. [HOW DO YOU “ELEVATE”WITHOUT POWER?]
II) SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIONISM:
GENDER SOCIALIZATION: EG. BARBIES FOR GIRLS AND G.I. JOE DOLLS FOR BOYS.
CONSEQUENCES:
BODY IMAGE CONSCIOUSNESS IN GIRLS; AGGRESSION IN BOYS.
EX: "SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY"
-- WE LEARN APPROPRIATE GENDER BEHAVIOURS FROM THE VARIOUS AGENTS OF
SOCIALIZATION.
EX: PARENTS TREAT GIRLS DIFFERENT THAN BOYS; SCHOOLS AND OTHER SOCIALIZING AGENTS TREAT GIRLS DIFFERENT FROM BOYS --
BOYS LEARN VERY EARLY ON THAT THEY MUST NOT SIMPLY
BEHAVE AS BOYS, BUT, MORE IMPORTANTLY, THEY MUST NOT BEHAVE LIKE GIRLS.
THEREFORE IT IS LESS PERMISSIBLE IN SOCIETY FOR BOYS
TO ACT IN WAYS THAT ARE "BENEATH THEM".
STUDIES HAVE SHOWN THAT WHAT SEEMS NATURAL MUST BE
CONTINUOUSLY SOCIALLY REINFORCED.
EX: BARRIE THORNE’S STUDY ILLUSTRATED “BOUNDARY CROSSING”….
THORNE’S CONCLUSIONS:
1) FIRST,
CHILDREN ARE ACTIVELY ENGAGED IN THE PROCESS OF CONSTRUCTING
GENDER ROLES. CHILDREN ARE NOT PASSIVE RECIPIENTS.
2) SECOND,
WHILE CHILDREN TEND TO SEGREGATE THEMSELVES BY GENDER, BOUNDARIES BETWEEN BOYS AND GIRLS ARE SOMETIMES FLUID AND SOMETIMES RIGID, DEPENDING ON THE SOCIAL CIRCUMSTANCES.
GENDER IDEOLOGIES:
WHAT BOYS ARE SUPPOSED TO DO….
WHAT GIRLS ARE SUPPOSED TO DO….
THE MASS MEDIA AND BODY IMAGE:
--- NOTICE A PATTERN
--- BODY IMAGE BECOMES AN IMPORTANT COMPONENT OF ONE’S SELF-DEFINITION.
--- ADVERTISING AND THE CREATION OF ANXIETY.
GENDER IDEOLOGIES AND MALE-FEMALE INTERACTION:
--- WHO TAKES CENTER-STAGE?
--- WHO GETS HEARD?
--- WHO GETS CREDIT AT WORK?
FEMINIST THEORIES
FEMINIST PERSPECTIVES ====è OFFER VARIOUS, SOMETIMES COMPETING,
“SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIONIST” EXPLANATIONS FOR THE PERVASIVENESS OF RELATIONSHIPS OF
DOMINATION AND SUBORDINATION BETWEEN MEN AND WOMEN ===è AND FOR A RANGE OF UNDERSTANDINGS ABOUT THE CHANGES REQUIRED TO REDRESS EXPLOITATIVE AND OPPRESSIVE RELATIONSHIPS.
LIBERAL FEMINISTS
1) MAIN SOURCE OF GENDER INEQUALITY IS THE "PROCESS OF
SOCIALIZATION" (LEARNING PROCESS BY WHICH YOU ACQUIRE THE KNOWLEDGE,
SKILL, AND MOTIVATIONS REQUIRED TO PARTICIPATE
IN SOCIAL LIFE).
2) THE CIRCUMSTANCES
THAT SHAPED WOMEN’S LIVES WERE THE LAWS AND PREJUDICES (SHARED BY MEN AND WOMEN) THAT EXCLUDED THEM FROM THE PUBLIC SPHERE AND FROM THE RIGHT TO EARN THEIR OWN LIVING
ON AN EQUAL FOOTING WITH MEN.
3) WOMEN
STRUGGLED FOR THE RIGHT TO HIGHER EDUCATION, ENTRANCE INTO THE PROFESSIONS, THE
RIGHT TO OWN PROPERTY AND HOLD PUBLIC OFFICE, AND FOR SUFFRAGE, THE RIGHT THAT CAME TO SYMBOLIZE FULL CITIZENSHIP.
4) THE
SOLUTION: – EDUCATION = REMOVE INDIVIDUAL IGNORANCE. THEREFORE, THESE LAWS AND THE PREJUDICES THAT UNDERWROTE THEM WOULD GRADUALLY
BE REPLACED BY EXTENDING EQUALITY OF OPPORTUNITY TO
WOMEN.
SOCIALIST FEMINISM:
1) OPPRESSIVE
RELATIONS BETWEEN THE SEXES ARE NOT SIMPLY
DERIVATIVE OF CLASS.---THE INTERCONNECTIONS BETWEEN
SEX OPPRESSION AND CLASS EXPLOITATION HAD TO BE ADDRESSED.
2) A
FOCUSED ON THE LABOUR DONE BY WOMEN IN THE HOUSEHOLD—CALLED DOMESTIC
LABOUR—HELPS TO SUSTAIN THE CAPITALIST SYSTEM.
(A) REARING
CHILDREN;
(B) SUSTAINING
HUSBANDS.
RESULT:
BOTH CAPITALISTS AND INDIVIDUAL MEN BENEFIT FROM THE UNPAID AND PERSONAL SERVICE OF WOMEN IN THE HOME.
3) SOME
SOCIALIST FEMINISTS ANALYZED THE INTERCONNECTIONS BETWEEN THE PUBLIC SPHERE OF
CAPITALIST AND STATE RELATIONS AND THE PRIVATE SPHERE OF THE FAMILY/ HOUSEHOLD.
(A) CAPITALISM
DONE AT FRACTION OF THE COST;
(B) THE
APPEARANCE OF THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN PRIVATE AND PUBLIC SUSTAINS THE UNEQUAL RELATIONS BETWEEN MEN AND WOMEN THROUGHOUT SOCIETY.
4) SOLUTION:
OVERCOME THE PRIVATE AND PUBLIC SPLIT ===> FAMILY WAGE; DENIAL OF EDUCATION; NO SOCIAL
SUPPORTS FOR CHILD CARE.
RADICAL FEMINIST
1) GENDER
INEQUALITY IS ROOTED IN THE MATERIAL CONDITIONS OF MEN AND WOMEN. THE BIOLOGICAL FAMILY IS AN INHERENTLY UNEQUAL POWER
DISTRIBUTION.
LIKE
MARXISM WHICH CONTENDS: MONOGAMY WAS THE FIRES FORM OF THE FAMILY TO BE BASED NOT ON NATURAL CONDITIONS BUT ON ECONOMIC
CONDITIONS: THE EXCLUSIVE AIMS OF MONOGAMOUS MARRIAGE WERE TO MAKE THE MAN SUPREME IN THE FAMILY AND TO
PROPAGATE, AS THE FUTURE HEIRS TO HIS WEALTH, CHILDREN INDISPUTABLY HIS OWN.
2) THE SOLE
PURPOSE OF MONOGAMOUS MARRIAGE IS TO SUBJUGATE THE FEMALE SEX TO THE MALE
===> THEY LOCATE MEN’S POWER OVER WOMEN IN THEIR ABILITY TO CONTROL WOMEN
SEXUALLY AND TO DEVELOP THE INSTITUTIONS THAT ENSURE CONTINUING
CONTROL.
WESTERN
SOCIETIES ARE A FORM OF
PATRIARCHY -- RULE OF MEN, MEN ARE THE MAIN BENEFICIARIES OF THESE SOCIETIES ====> IN A WORLD OF UNEQUAL POWER
RELATIONS BETWEEN MEN AND WOMEN, COMPULSORY HETEROSEXUALITY ENSURES NOT ONLY
WOMEN’S SEXUAL DEPENDENCE UPON MEN BUT ALSO THEIR ECONOMIC, SOCIAL, AND PSYCHOLOGICAL DEPENDENCE.
3) THE
SOLUTION: THE ELIMINATION OF MEN AND THE TRADITIONAL FAMILY FROM WOMEN'S LIVES -- "COMPULSORY
HETEROSEXUALITY" IS THE KEY WAY WOMEN ARE SUBORDINATED AND ENSLAVED IN THIS SOCIETY ===> WOMEN SHOULD BUILD THEIR OWN INSTITUTIONS
FROM HEALTH CLINICS AND WOMEN'S SHELTERS TO SMALL BUSINESSES, ART GALLERIES ETC.
[[[FLERAS:
PP.132 "SOCIAL PROBLEMS" == LIBERAL FEMINISM (LEVELING
THE PLATYING FIELD -- REMOVING DISCRIMINATORY BARRIERS) == MARXIST
FEMINISM (WORKERS (WOMEN AND MEN) OF THE WORLD UNITE -- RESTRUCTURE SOCIETY TO ELIMINATE PRIVATE
PROPERTY AT THE BASE OF EXPLOITATION) == RADICAL FEMINISM (HEY,
HO, PATRIARCHY HAS TO GO -- ELIMINATE PATRIARCHY AND THE NUCLEAR FAMILY THAT SUPPORTS IT) == CULTURAL FEMINISM (CELEBRATE
AND POLITICIZE WOMEN AS DIFFERENT AND VALUABLE) == RAINBOW FEMINISM (COATS OF MANY COLOURS --
WHITE FEMINIST AND FEMINIST OF COLOUR HAVE DIFFERENT AGENDAS WHERE
ADDITIONAL PRESSURES RELATED TO RACISM AND ETHNICITY ARE SUPERIMPOSED ON AND INTERSECT GENDER AND CLASS, AMPLIFYING INEQUALITY) == CONSERVATIVE
FEMINISM (THE GOOD OLD DAYS -- ESPOUSES A VIEW OF EQUALITY THAT
ACKNOWLEDGES WOMEN IN TRADITIONAL, MATERNAL, DOMESTIC ROLES TO CURE THE BREAKDOWN IN THE FABRIC OF SOCIETY)]].
CHARACTERISTICS AND DIFFERENCES IN THE WORLD OF WORK
THE GENDERED DIVISION OF LABOR IS A CENTRAL ASPECT OF
THE GENDER INEQUALITY THAT EXISTS IN SOCIETY. THE FACTS ARE AS FOLLOWS:
(1) IN CANADA TODAY, A SPLIT LABOR MARKET EXISTS, WITH WOMEN PRIMARILY IN JOBS
THAT HAVE LOWER INCOMES AND LOWER STATUS. IN THE HOUSEHOLD, WOMEN DO THE MAJORITY
OF THE WORK. MOST WOMEN WORK IN THE PAID LABOR FORCE OUT OF ECONOMIC NECESSITY.
(2) IN THE
WORLD OF WORK, MEN AND WOMEN ARE NOT EQUAL. SINCE 1960S, WOMEN IN CANADA HAVE ENTERED THE PAID LABOR FORCE IN LARGE NUMBERS,
WITH THEIR PARTICIPATION RATE NOW VERY CLOSE TO MEN
(3) IN TERMS
OF EDUCATION, MORE WOMEN THAN MEN NOW EARN UNDERGRADUATE DEGREES. NONETHELESS, WOMEN HAVE NOT ENTERED THE
PAID LABOR FORCE ON AN EQUAL FOOTING WITH MEN.
(4) IN FACT, THE WAGE GAP IS EVEN GREATER IN THE MORE PRESTIGIOUS OCCUPATIONS
-- WOMEN AVERAGE ONLY 61% OF MALE EARNINGS.
(5) IN THE
LOWER RANGE OCCUPATIONS, WOMEN ONLY EARN 73 PER CENT OF WHAT MEN EARN.
(6) THREE-QUARTERS
OF THOSE IN THE TEN LOWEST-PAYING OCCUPATIONS ARE WOMEN.
(7) ALTHOUGH
"GENDER-SEGREGATION" IS THE PRIMARY CAUSE OF LOWER WAGES, THE WAGE
REMAINS LOWER THAN MAN'S EVEN WITHIN MALE-DOMINATED OCCUPATIONS.
(8) OF THE TEN HIGHEST-PAYING FULL-TIME, FULL-YEAR
JOBS, ALL ARE MALE DOMINATED, WITH WOMEN ACCOUNTING FOR LESS THAN
20 PERCENT OF WORKERS IN THOSE OCCUPATIONS.
THE GENDER WAGE GAP
THE WAGE GAP REFERS TO THE DISPARITY BETWEEN WOMEN'S AND MEN'S EARNINGS. IT IS CALCULATED BY DIVIDING WOMEN'S EARNING'S BY
MEN'S TO YIELD A PERCENTAGE - "EARNINGS RATIO".
MALE-FEMALE WAGE DIFFERENCES REVEAL THAT GENDER IS A
MAJOR SOURCE OF INEQUALITY IN THE WORKFORCE.
WOMEN'S OVERALL PAY RELATIVE TO MEN'S HAS INCREASED BY ABOUT A PENNY A YEAR FOR THE PAST TEN YEARS, WHICH IS A SIGNIFICANT MOVE UPWARD - HOWEVER:
IN 1996, WOMEN WHO WORKED FULL TIME FOR THE WHOLE YEAR STILL EARNED ONLY 73 CENTS FOR EACH DOLLAR
EARNED BY THEIR MALE COUNTERPARTS (STATS CANADA, 1999)
IN 1966, SINGLE WOMEN EARNED 93 CENTS FOR EVERY DOLLAR
EARNED BY A MARRIED MAN. MARRIED WOMEN, ON THE OTHER HAND, EARNED ONLY 69 CENTS FOR EVERY DOLLAR EARNED BY A MARRIED MAN (STATS CANADA, 1998).
THE GENDER WAGE GAP EXISTS FOR ALL LEVELS OF EDUCATION. ALTHOUGH HIGHER EDUCATION
CLEARLY NARROWS THE WAGE GAP BETWEEN MEN AND WOMEN, A WOMAN WITH A UNIVERSITY DEGREE EARNS APPROXIMATELY $13,000
LESS THAN A MAN WITH A UNIVERSITY DEGREE - THE GAP IS ATTRIBUTABLE TO "OCCUPATIONAL SEGREGATION"
- [THE MAJORITY OF FEMALE UNIVERSITY STUDENTS ENROL IN DEGREE PROGRAMS IN
EDUCATION, HEALTH PROFESSIONS, FINE ARTS, AND THE HUMANITIES, WHILE MALES CONTINUE TO DOMINATE IN FIELDS OF SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING.]
EVEN WITHIN OCCUPATIONS THAT REQUIRE SPECIALIZED
EDUCATIONAL CREDENTIALS, THE WAGE GAP DOES NOT DISAPPEAR - FOR EVERY DOLLAR EARNED BY MEN, WOMEN EARNED: 66
CENTS AS DENTISTS, 68 CENTS AS LAWYERS, AND 77 CENTS AS UNIVERSITY PROFESSORS (STATS CANADA, 1998).
GENDER RELATIONS
GENDER STRATIFICATION SYSTEM - MEANS THAT THERE ARE NOT ONLY DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MEN AND WOMEN - THERE ARE ALSO "STATUS ISSUES ATTACHED" TO
THESE DIFFERENCES [THERE IS AN UP AND DOWN RANKING SCALE BASED ON GENDER].
1) WHAT
IS THE CAUSE OF GENDER INEQUALITY IN CANADA?
GENDER
INEQUALITY RESULTS FROM ECONOMIC, POLITICAL, AND EDUCATIONAL DISCRIMINATION AGAINST WOMEN. IN MOST WORKPLACES, JOBS ARE EITHER GENDER SEGREGATED OR THE MAJORITY OF EMPLOYEES ARE OF THE SAME GENDER. WHILE THE DEGREE OF GENDER SEGREGATION IN THE
PROFESSIONAL WORKPLACE HAS DECLINED SINCE THE 1970S, RACIAL AND ETHNIC SEGREGATION REMAINS DEEPLY EMBEDDED.
2) HOW IS OCCUPATIONAL
SEGREGATION RELATED TO THE PAY GAP?
MANY
WOMEN WORK IN LOWER-PAYING, LESS PRESTIGIOUS JOBS THAN MEN. THIS
OCCUPATIONAL SEGREGATION LEADS TO A DISPARITY, OR PAY GAP, BETWEEN WOMEN'S AND MEN'S EARNINGS. EVEN WHEN WOMEN ARE EMPLOYED IN THE SAME JOB AS MEN, ON
AVERAGE THEY DO NOT RECEIVE THE SAME, OR COMPARABLE ,
PAY.
GENDER AND CITY LIFE
DIFFERENT KINDS OF CITIES HAVE DIFFERENT "GENDER
REGIMES" -- PREVAILING IDEOLOGIES OF HOW WOMEN AND MEN SHOULD THINK, FEEL, AND ACT; HOW ACCESS TO SOCIAL POSITIONS AND CONTROL OF RESOURCES SHOULD BE MANAGED; AND HOW RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN MEN AND WOMEN SHOULD BE CONDUCTED.
SOME MEN VIEW THE CITY AS "SEXUAL SPACE" -- WHERE WOMEN ARE CATEGORIZED AS: "PROSTITUTES", "LESBIANS",
"TEMPTRESSES", OR "VIRTUOUS WOMEN IN NEED OF
PROTECTION" -- BASED ON THEIR SEXUAL DESIRABILITY AND ACCESSIBILITY.
THIS PHENOMENON OF "SEXUAL STEREOTYPES ABOUT
WOMEN AS SEXUAL OBJECTS" CONTRIBUTES TO A DISTORTED UNDERSTANDING IN
EVERYDAY LIFE THAT ACTUALLY SETS THE STAGE FOR A VIOLENT MALE
PATHOLOGY.
EG.: TORONTO'S
DEMENTED SEXUAL PREDATORS -- BRANDED "THE WEST-END TRANSIT RAPIST" AND "THE EAST-END BREAK-IN RAPIST".
THE BIG CITY OFFERS A PARADOX FOR WOMEN:
(1) "VULNERABILITY"
-- WHILE MODERN URBAN LIFE MAY PROVIDE GREATER FREEDOM AND A BROADER RANGE OF LIFESTYLE CHOICES THAN IN THE PAST, INCLUDING MORE
OPPORTUNITIES IN TERMS OF PAID EMPLOYMENT OUTSIDE THE HOME, WOMEN MAY ALSO BE IN GREATER PHYSICAL DANGER, AND FEEL PARTICULARLY VULNERABLE IF THEY HAVE TO WALK ALONE AFTER DARK BECAUSE OF WORK OR SCHOOL.
ON THE OTHER HAND (POSITIVE):
(2) "FREEDOM"
-- CITIES ARE MORE LIKELY THAN SUBURBS TO SUPPORT A SUBCULTURE(S)
OF ECONOMICALLY INDEPENDENT FEMALES. THUS, CITIES MAY PROVIDE A FORUM FOR CHALLENGING PATRIARCHY?
THE HIGHER THE DENSITY AND GREATER DIVERSITY FOUND IN CENTRAL CITIES SERVES AS A CHALLENGE TO THE
PATRIARCHY [FOUND IN THE HOME AND WORKPLACE
IN LOWER-DENSITY, HOMOGENEOUS AREAS SUCH AS SUBURBS AND RURAL AREAS.] == RESIDENCE WHO DIFFER IN MARITAL STATUS, PATERNITY,
SEXUAL ORIENTATION, CLASS AND/OR RACE/ETHNICITY
TEND TO LIVE IN CLOSE PROXIMITY, AND SHARE THE COMMON BELIEF THAT PATRIARCHY SHOULD BE ELIMINATED.
[UPSHOT] SOCIAL PROBLEM: CITY OFFERS THE ULTIMATE GENDER PARADOX - IT CAN BE AN ENVIRONMENT THAT
PUTS WOMEN AT EXTREME RISK; OR IT COULD BE THE VEHICLE FOR LIBERATION - HOW
WOULD YOU ENSURE THE LATTER?
EX: URBAN PLANNING (SAFE NEIGHBORHOODS); LEGALLY (SEVER SANCTIONS AGAINST GENDER VIOLENCE) ETC.
MANAGING DIVERSITY IN
THE WORKPLACE
MANAGE DIVERSITY SHOULD AIM TO BUILD THE FOLLOWING CHARACTERISTICS INTO A NEW "DIVERSITY CENTRIC" CULTURE:
A) AN
ACCEPTANCE (LED BY MANAGEMENT) OF A WORKFORCE THAT WILL "EMBODY DIFFERENT
PERSPECTIVES AND APPROACHES TO WORK."
(B) VALUING A
VARIETY OF OPINIONS AND CONTRIBUTIONS.
(C) AN
ENVIRONMENT THAT IMPOSES HIGH STANDARDS UPON ALL EMPLOYEES IN AND EQUAL MANNER.
(D) A
STRUCTURE THAT STIMULATES PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT.
(E) AND FINALLY, A SYSTEM OF COMMUNICATION THAT IS FLUID AND OPEN, WHERE WORKERS ARE MADE TO
FEEL VALUED FOR THEIR CONTRIBUTIONS.
HARD BUSINESS RESULTS: TAKING A LOOK AT EACH OF THE COMPONENTS THAT BUILD A DIVERSE CORPORATE CULTURE
BEGINS BY LOOKING AT HOW A COMPANY CAN VALUE DIFFERING PERSPECTIVES AND APPROACHES TO WORK. SIMPLY PUT "THERE IS MORE THAN ONE RIGHT WAY TO GET POSITIVE RESULTS."
AND BY RECOGNIZING THE STRENGTHS OF PEOPLE, WHICH MAY VARY DEPENDING UPON A PERSON'S RACIAL, ETHNIC, RELIGIOUS OR CULTURAL
BACKGROUND, A COMPANY WILL FIND THAT THEY MAY BE BETTER ABLE TO BUILD STRONG COHESIVE WORK TEAMS MADE UP OF PEOPLE, WHO ARE DIFFERENT, AND WHO COMPREHENSIVELY FILL, COMPLEMENT AND COMPLETE THE SKILL SETS OF OTHERS IN EACH GROUP.
CRASHING THROUGH THE
TRADITIONAL ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE,
IN FAVOUR OF A NEW, MORE EGALITARIAN, NON-BUREAUCRATIC STRUCTURE THAT
"PROMOTES THE EXCHANGE OF IDEAS AND WELCOMES CONSTRUCTIVE
CHALLENGES".
THIS TYPE OF CULTURE "INSTILLS A HIGH
TOLERANCE FOR DEBATE" AND SUPPORTS
CONSTRUCTIVE CONFLICT ON WORK-RELATED
MATTERS ALLOWING FOR DIFFERENT
PERSPECTIVES TO BE INTRODUCED AND VALUED,
THUS PROMOTING A COMFORTABLE WORK
ENVIRONMENT WHERE EMPLOYEES DO FEEL THAT THEIR OPINIONS ARE ENCOURAGED AND SUPPORTED.
[SOFT BUSINESS RESULTS - SUCH
AS INCREASED EMPLOYEE MORALE, INCREASED PRODUCTIVITY PER EMPLOYEE, DECREASED EMPLOYEE TURNOVER AND ABSENTEEISM, AND OVERALL, AND INCREASED SENSE OF ORGANIZATION, AND THESE SUCCESSES ALLOW A DIVERSE COMPANY TO "GO BEYOND
FINANCIAL MEASURES TO ENCOMPASS LEARNING, CREATIVITY, FLEXIBILITY,
ORGANIZATIONAL AND
INDIVIDUAL GROWTH, AND THE ABILITY OF A COMPANY TO ADJUST RAPIDLY AND SUCCESSFULLY TO MARKET CHANGES;" PLACING THE DIVERSE COMPANY IN A MUCH MORE
FAVOURABLE POSITION, RELATIVE TO ITS COMPETITORS.