REVIEW – FEBRUARY 08

ORGANIZATIONAL PRACTICE AND THE STATE

AK/SOSCI 3570 6.0

 

 

{SYNOPSIS AND GENERAL OVERVIEW: THIS SECTION OF THE COURSE HAS BEEN DIVIDED INTO FOUR SUBJECT AREAS: (1) THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF DISCRIMINATION (2) FAMILY PROBLEMS IN POSTMODERN SOCIETY (3) EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITY AND EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC OUTCOMES (4) GENDER PARADOXES, PAY EQUITY AND THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF CHILDCARE

 

{*THE SOCIOLOGICAL KEY ====> IN THIS SECTION OF THE COURSE WE LEARNED ABOUT THE RACIALIZATION AND GENDERIZATION OF POLITCAL ECONOMY, AND [SOME] CONTEMPORARY ATTEMPTS TO INTERVENE IN THE STATUS QUO}

 

 

PART I – THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF DISCRIMINATION

 

QUESTION: WHAT IS THE MOST DESTRUCTIVE SOCIAL PROCESS OF CONTEMPORARY SOCIETY? THE SOCIAL PROCESS FROM ETHNOCENTRISM TO STEREOTPYING TO PREJUDICE TO DISCRIMINATION.

 

ETHNOCENTRISM IS THE BELIEF THAT ONE'S OWN CULTURE IS BETTER THAN OTHERS AND/OR THE TENDENCY TO BELIEVE THAT WHAT IS TRUE OF YOUR CULTURE IS TRUE OF OTHERS.

 

STEREOTYPE IS A SET OF BIASED GENERALIZATIONS ABOUT A GROUP OR CATEGORY OF PEOPLE THAT IS UNFAVORABLE, EXAGGERATED OR OVER-SIMPLIFIED.

 

PREJUDICE IS A NEGATIVE ATTITUDE BASED ON PRECONCEIVED NOTIONS ABOUT MEMBERS OF A SELECT GROUP.

 

DISCRIMINATION IS DENIAL OF EQUAL TREATMENT OR OPPORTUNITIES TO INDIVIDUALS ON THE BASIS OF MEMBERSHIP IN A PARTICULAR GROUP.

 

 

CAVEAT (WARNING, PROVISO)

 

MOST SOCIAL SCIENTIST AGREE THAT "ETHNOCENTRISM" IS A "UNIVERSAL PHENOMENON", THAT EMERGES OUT OF THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF GROUP IDENTITY (BOUNDARIES).

 

ETHNOCENTRISM PROVIDES A SENSE OF COHESION, ESTEEM, RESPECT, DIGNITY, AND PRIDE. SO ETHNOCENTRISM IS THE BELIEF IN ONE'S OWN CULTURE, AND FUNCTIONS AS A SOURCE OF PRIDE AND TOGETHERNESS IN ORDER TO CREATE GROUP BOUNDARIES

 

"BUT" ETHNOCENTRISM OFTEN LEADS TO OTHER IMPORTANT SOCIOLOGICAL TOPICS -- SUCH AS "STEREOTYPING" (OVER-GENERALIZED CARICATURES OF OTHERS) AND "PREJUDICE" (NEGATIVE ATTITUDES BASED ON PRECONCEIVED NOTIONS) AND "DISCRIMINATION" (HARMFUL PRACTICES).

 

ETHNOCENTRISM IS AN INCIPIENT (EMBRYONIC) PROCESS IN THE FORMATION OF INDIVIDUAL AND GROUP IDENTITY.

 

WE CAN THINK OF THE MATTER THIS WAY: ETHNOCENTRISM IS A NECESSARY BUT NOT SUFFICIENT CONDITION FOR STEREOTYPING; AND STEREOTYPING IS A NECESSARY BUT NOT SUFFICIENT CONDITION FOR PREJUDICE; AND PREJUDICE IS A NECESSARY BUT NOT SUFFICIENT CONDITION FOR DISCRIMINATION.

 

 

 

PART II – FAMILY PROBLEMS

 

QUESTION: WHAT AND HOW ARE FAMILIES PROBLEMATIZED IN CONTEMPORARY SOCIETY

SOCIAL PROBLEM – A SOCIAL CONDITION OR FORM OF CONDUCT LABELLED AS A PROBLEMATIC BY A POWERFUL GROUP

SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIONISTS:

THE SOCIOLOGY OF DEVIANCE TELL US THAT SOCIAL PROBLEMS ARE NOT DISCOVERED. THAT IS, SOCIAL PROBLEMS ARE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIONS; THEY ARE MADE NOT DISCOVERED =====> LIKE ANY OTHER SOCIAL PROCESS SOCIAL PROBLEMS ARE GENERATED OUT OF THE INTERPLAY BETWEEN – CULTURE, POWER AND IDEOLOGY =====> THIS MEANS THAT SOCIAL CONDITIONS {SAY, THE BLACK “SLUM”} DOES NOT BECOME SOCIAL PROBLEMS UNTIL SOME {POWERFUL} GROUP MAKES THEM AN ISSUE – THAT IS, TARGETS THEM, LABELS THEM DEVIANT, AND ATTEMPTS TO PUT THEM ON THE SOCIAL AGENDA

THE STUDY OF SOCIAL PROBLEMS IS THE STUDY OF THAT PROBLEMATIZING PROCESS

BY CONCEPTUALIZING IT AS A PROCESS, WE RECOGNIZE THAT SOCIAL PROBLEMS IS AN INTERACTION- OFTEN OF STRUGGLE-BETWEEN THE POWERFUL AND THE POWERLESS OVER THOSE WHOSE WAYS ARE THE RIGHT WAYS

MILLER ARGUES THAT THE FAMILY PROBLEMS OF THIS CENTURY AND THE LAST CAN BE UNDERSTOOD ONLY AGAINST THE BACKDROP OF THE EMERGENCE OF THE BOURGEOIS FAMILY IDEAL: THE PATRIARCHAL CULT OF DOMESTICITY THAT HAD THE EFFECT OF SANCTIFYING A SINGLE FAMILIAL ARRANGEMENT AS THE ONLY PROPER AND RESPECTABLE ONE

THE CULT OF DOMESTICITY

·         SOCIAL HISTORIANS AGREED THAT OVER THE 18TH AND 19TH CENTURY IN NORTHERN EUROPE, THERE AROSE IN THE BURGEONING MIDDLE CLASS, A CULT OF DOMESTICITY THAT MADE THE NEW FORM AN OBJECT OF VENERATION.

·         UNTIL THE 18TH CENTURY, THE FAMILY EXISTED AS A POLITICAL AND PUBLIC BODY, WITH LITTLE OR NO PRIVATE CHARACTER.

·         TOWARDS THE END OF THE 18TH CENTURY, THE “DOMESTIC” OR “INTIMATE” MODERN FORM OF THE FAMILY EMERGED AND BECAME THE NORMAL STANDARD OF LIVING.

 

PREMODERN FAMILY

·         WAS THE PROBLEM, WHICH WAS SEEN AS A PARASITIC INSTITUTIONAL FORM, WHOSE MEMBERS WERE THOUGHT TO BE MAKING AN INSUFFICIENT CONTRIBUTION TO THE WELFARE OF SOCIETY P. 135.

·         THIS FAMILY WAS LARGE AND DIVERSE, INCLUDING HOUSEHOLD ENCOMPASSING SERVANTS AND KIN ETC.

·         MOST OF THE STATE’S REFORM POLICIES WERE NOT INTENDED TO REPLACE THE FAMILY BUT TO IMPROVE IT -- EXAMPLE: THE BABY BONUS

 

THE BABY BONUS

·         BEGAN AS A STATE PAYMENT TO ANY MOTHER WHO WAS WILLING TO RAISE ILLEGITIMATE CHILDREN IN HER OWN FAMILY, BECAME A MECHANISM WHICH ALLOWED THE STATE TO OVERSEE THE PHYSICAL AND MORAL HYGIENE OF THE BOURGEOISIE AND LATER THE POOR, FAMILY BY MEASURING IT AGAINST THE STANDARD OF THE NEW IDEAL P.135

·         THE ETHOS OF DOMESTICITY HAD ITS ORIGIN IN EUROPEAN SOCIETIES, WHERE PRIVILEGE ACCORDED TO THE NEW IDEAL, THAT WORKED TO PRODUCE A MORAL DISTINCTION BETWEEN THE RESPECTABLE MIDDLE-CLASS FAMILY AND THE WORK-CLASS FAMILY, WHO WERE SEEN AS DEFICIENT AND A THREAT TO THE PUBLIC ORDER

 

POLICING THE “UNFIT”FAMILY UNIT

 

THE “SLUM” FAMILY:

·         DURING THE YEARS OF RAPID IMMIGRATION BETWEEN 1860 AND THE FIRST WORLD WAR, CRITICS RESERVED THE GREATEST CONCERN FOR THE URBAN SLUM FAMILIES, WHERE THE THREAT TO THE CHILD WAS CONSIDERED THE GREATEST

·         MIDDLE-CLASS DEFINITION OF A SLUM FAMILY FOCUSED ON THE “IDLE YOUTH” WHO WERE MARGINALLY EMPLOYED AS BOOTBLACKS AND NEWSBOYS, NEITHER GOING TO SCHOOL OR WORK, JUST ROAMING THE STREETS P. 137

·         SOLUTIONS TO THIS WOULD BECOME THE “PROBLEM OF JUVENILE DELINQUENCY”, AND INCLUDED SOME THINGS AS TRAINING SCHOOLS OR ORPHANAGES, THAT WERE SEEN TO INSTALL THE CHILD INTO A BETTER HOME.

·         DURING THE LAST HALF OF THE 19TH CENTURY, CHILDREN’S WAGES PROVIDED AN IMPORTANT PART OF FAMILY INCOME.

·         IN COMPARISON WITH THE MODERN FAMILY, GOOD PARENTING CAME TO IMPLY THE COMPLETE SEGREGATION OF THE CHILD FROM THE ADULT WORLD OF PAID LABOUR.

·         THERE WAS A GENERAL BELIEF THAT WORKING-CLASS GIRLS SHOULD BE AT HOME, RATHER THEN AT DANCE HALLS OR THEATRES, FOR EXAMPLE

 

EXCURSUS {ASIDE OR DIGRESSION}: THE TYRANNY OF THE EXPERTS

 

·         PRIOR TO THE RISE OF THE MODERN STATE, THE LOCAL COMMUNITY AND CHURCH WERE THE MAJOR AGENTS OF SOCIAL CONTROL

·         MECHANISMS OF CONTROL WERE LOCAL AND INFORMAL, AND INCLUDED NOISY PUBLIC DEMONSTRATIONS CALLED “SHIVAREES” WHICH WERE DESIGNED TO HUMILIATE THE WRONGDOER INTO RIGHT CONDUCT P.138

·         THE RISE OF THE MODERN STATE SIGNALLED THE WEAKENING OF COMMUNITY AUTHORITY AND THE SOCIAL CONTROL OF THE FAMILY BECAME MORE STANDARDIZED AND FORMAL

·         THE PROBLEM OF SLUM FAMILIES BECAME IN ITS ENTIRETY THE PROPERTY OF THE NEW (MALE) CHILD-CARE PROFESSIONALS

 

THE PROBLEM OF THE EMPLOYED MOTHER

·         THE ETHOS OF DOMESTICITY ENTAILS A FIGURE OF THE VULNERABLE CHILD TOGETHER WITH THE MOTHER WHO IS EXPECTED TO MAKE THE CHILD HER FIRST CONCERN, ABOVE HERSELF

·         THE PROBLEM WITH WORKING MOTHERS IS THAT SHE SHOULD BE MINDING HER CHILDREN, INSTEAD OF GOING OUT AND WORKING, WHICH BECAME A CONCERN WITH THE ETHOS OF DOMESTICITY, WHEREBY THE ROLE OF THE MOTHER SHOULD BECOME THE CENTRAL MISSION IN A WOMAN’S LIFE

·         THE WORKING MOTHER BECAME A FOCUS OF ANXIETY, AS RECENT DEBATES IN CONNECTION WITH THE PUSH FOR MORE DAYCARE

·         TODAY, MOTHERS THEMSELVES CONTINUE TO SHOW CONSIDERABLE AMBIVALENCE ABOUT THE APPROPRIATENESS OF THEIR OWN PAID WORK: THEY, WORK, OR PLAN TO WHILE INSIST THAT THEIR PROPER PLACE IS AT HOME, “AT LEAST WHILE THE CHILDREN ARE YOUNG” P.143

·         FOR THOSE WOMEN WHO WORK IN THE LABOUR FORCE, MOTHERING IS CONSIDERED THEIR FIRST COMMITMENT OR PRIMARY “REALWORK

 

THE NEW PROBLEM: THE LESBIAN FAMILY

·         PERHAPS THE MOST OBVIOUS CHALLENGES TO THE BOURGEOISIE IDEAL OF THE HETEROSEXUAL, MALE DOMINATED FAMILY ARE THE CONJUGAL FAMILIES OF THE 1960’S AND THE ALTERNATIVE FAMILY FORMS OF THE 1980’S AND 1990’S, INCLUDING GAY AND LESBIAN, AS WELL AS SINGLE HEADED FAMILIES

·         ARNUP’S STUDY OF 5 COURTS CASES DEALING WITH LESBIAN CUSTODY BEFORE 1984, SHOWED THAT COURT DECISIONS NEITHER REPRESSED NOR TOLERATED LESBIAN FAMILIES AS SUCH, BUT DISTINGUISHED BETWEEN THE GOOD AND BAD LESBIAN FAMILIES P.145

·         THIS STUDY SHOWED THE STATE’S ROLE IN CONTROLLING AT LEAST THIS ALTERNATIVE FAMILY FORM, AS WELL AS THE GOAL OF THE STATE’S EFFORTS

·         THE STATE IS NOT CONCERNED WITH LESBIAN FAMILIES PER SE, BUT WITH THE WAY SUCH FAMILIES REPRESENT THEMSELVES PUBLICLY WITH REGARD TO THE DOMESTIC STANDARD

·         IN COURT CASES, THE DETERMINING FACTOR IN A JUDGE’S DECISION IS NOT WHAT THE MOTHER’S SEXUAL ORIENTATION IS, BUT RATHER WHAT SHE DOES WITH IT

 

PROBLEMATIZING THE HIDDEN INJUSTICES OF NORMAL FAMILY LIFE

 

THE FEMINIZATION OF POVERTY: WOMEN FACE HIGHER RISKS OF POVERTY THAN MEN, WHICH IS CONSIDERED A SIGNIFICANT LONG-TERM TREND WHY?

BECAUSE THOSE WOMEN WHO REMAINED HOUSEWIVES ALL THEIR ADULT YEARS HAVE BEEN DISADVANTAGED MATERIALLY BY THEIR TOTAL ECONOMIC DEPENDENCE ON THEIR HUSBAND, WHOSE SUPPORT MIGHT SUDDENLY DISAPPEAR THROUGH DIVORCE, DESERTION OR DEATH P. 148

 

THE JOBS FOR WHICH WOMEN ARE HIRED ARE OVERALL THE WORST: THEY OFFER THE LOWEST PAY AND THE FEWEST BENEFITS (GENDER SEGREGATION OF THE LABOUR FORCE)

 

CULTURAL ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT THE NATURE OF FEMININITY ALSO PLAY A CRUCIAL ROLE BOTH IN THE CAUSES OF WOMEN’S POVERTY AND IN ITS INVISIBILITY AS A SOCIAL PROBLEM

FAMILY VIOLENCE

 

THE PROBLEM OF FAMILY VIOLENCE:

·         FAMILY VIOLENCE IS NOW SEEN AS VIOLENCE OF SEVERAL DIFFERENT KINDS- AGAINST WOMEN, CHILDREN, THE OLD, AND AMONGST CHILDREN (SIBLINGS)

·         GREATER VISIBILITY IS CURRENTLY ATTACHED TO THE ABUSE OF WOMEN AND CHILDREN THAN TO SIBLING ABUSE AND THE ABUSE OF OLDER FAMILY MEMBERS

·         DOMESTIC VIOLENCE IS SOMETIMES WOMAN-TO-MAN, BUT MORE OFTEN WOMEN AND CHILDREN ARE THE VICTIMS

·         A RECENT CANADIAN SURVEY INDICATED THAT 29% OF WOMEN HAVE EXPERIENCE VIOLENCE AT THE HANDS OF THEIR CURRENT OR PREVIOUS MARITAL PARTNER P. 150SOCIOLOGIST OF THE FAMILY WARN THAT PARENTAL HOMICIDE IS THE MOST COMMON KILLER OF CHILDREN, PARENTS CONTINUE TO FEAR THE MANIAC IN THE SCHOOLYARD FOR EXAMPLE

·         SOME VIOLENT ACTS ARE ALSO NORMALIZED AND REINTERPRETED AS ACCEPTABLE (EX. FIGHTS BETWEEN SIBLINGS)

 

SOCIAL CONTROL

·         ACCORDING TO MILLER, WHEN WE REASSIGN SEVERE OR DEVIANT VIOLENCE TO OTHERS, WE EVADE THE RECOGNITION THAT OUR INTIMATES CAN ALSO DO US HARM P. 152

·         DESPITE ATTEMPTS TO DEMONSTRATE, “SCIENTIFICALLY” THAT VIOLENCE IS DISTRIBUTED THROUGHOUT THE AMBIT OF HUMAN EXPERIENCE, THE VIOLENT PERSON WHO IS ALSO AN INTIMATE IS NOT YET CULTURALLY DEFINED AS A CATEGORY OF DEVIANT

·         THE TENDENCY TO MEDICALIZE FAMILY VIOLENCE BY ATTRIBUTING IT TO PHYSICAL OR MENTAL ILLNESS WORSENS THE PROBLEM, BY BLINDING US TO THE CULTURAL ROOTS OF THE WAY WE UNDERSTAND THE FAMILY AND THE VIOLENCE WITHIN IT P. 152

 

CONCLUSION

·         THE INCREASE ATTENTION PAID TO SOCIAL CONTROL AND ITS HISTORICAL EVOLUTION HAS LED TO A RE-EVALUATION OF THE LINKAGE BETWEEN FAMILY AND STATE

·         FEMINIST SCHOLARS HAVE COME TO RECOGNIZE THAT THE VARIOUS WAYS IN WHICH THE STATE ATTEMPTS TO SUPPRESS OR IMPROVE “PROBLEM FAMILIES HAS GONE AGAINST THE INTERESTS OF WOMEN”

·         ACCORDING TO LESLIE MILLER, STATE ENFORCEMENT OF THE “DOMESTIC FAMILY” OFTEN ENTAILS DIRECT OR INDIRECT REPRESSION OF OTHER WORKABLE ARRANGEMENTS, SUCH AS WOMEN WORKING OUTSIDE THE HOME

·         ON THE OTHER HAND, HOWEVER, MANY FEMINISTS RECOGNIZE THAT WOMEN TODAY WELCOME STATE INTERVENTION INTO THEIR HOMELIVES

·         THIS CHAPTER RAISES THE QUESTION OF WHETHER THE STATE, GIVEN ITS SUBSERVIENCE TO THE INTERESTS OF CAPITAL (PATRIARCHY) CAN BE EXPECTED TO ACT AGAINST THOSE INTERESTS BY TAKING THE SIDE OF WOMEN IN THE FAMILY

·         AT THE PRESENT TIME, FAMILY THEORISTS HAVE BEGUN TO SEE THE STATE AS AN ENVIRONMENT WITHIN WHICH FAMILY MEMBERS ARE SEEN TO BE THE AGENTS OF THEIR OWN LIVES

 

 

PART III – EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITY

 

QUESTION: WHAT IS THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ACCESS TO EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES AND EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT, AND HOW DOES THE RELATIONSHIP CORRELATE TO SOCIAL ECONOMIC BENEFITS?

 

 

LIBERAL PERSPECTIVES ON EDUCATION:

MERITOCRACY” VS.STRUCTURED SOCIAL INEQUALITY

 

LIBERAL PERSPECTIVES ON EDUCATION PORTRAYS IT AS A “MERITOCRACY”, OR A VEHICLE FOR NURTURING THE TALENTS AND CAPACITIES OF EACH INDIVIDUAL IN HARMONY WITH HIS OR HER ABILITY TO CONTRIBUTE PRODUCTIVELY TO SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT === THEREFORE === [1] TO DENY OPPORTUNITY TO INDIVIDUALS OR GROUPS OF PEOPLE IS BOTH MORALLY UNJUST AND COUNTERPRODUCTIVE TO THE ADVANCEMENT OF SOCIETY, SINCE INDUSTRIAL SOCIETIES CANNOT AFFORD TO ALLOW TALENT AND BRAINPOWER TO GO TO WASTE === [2] THE LIBERAL ORIENTATION IS OFTEN SUPPORTED WITH REFERENCE TO NOTIONS OF A MERITOCRACY IN WHICH SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC REWARDS, SUCH AS PRESTIGE AND WEALTH, ARE ALLOCATED TO INDIVIDUALS AS A INCENTIVE TO MAINTAIN SKILLED AND INDUSTRIOUS PERFORMANCE IN ORDER TO FULFIL THE MOST CRUCIAL SOCIAL TASKS [MAZUREK, 1987; WOTHERSPOON 2000].

 

OPPOSITIONAL/OBSERVATIONAL CHALLENGES:

 

DESPITE THE APPEAL FOR FAIRNESS AND JUSTICE IN LIBERAL CONCEPTIONS OF “EQUALITY OF OPPORTUNITY”, AND WIDESPREAD PUBLIC SUPPORT FOR THE SENTIMENT THAT EQUALITY OF OPPORTUNITY SHOULD BE A GUIDING PRINCIPLE IN THE ORGANIZATION OF CANADIAN SCHOOLS, SEVERAL CHALLENGES TO THE NOTION HAVE BEEN MOUNTED ==== BOTH THE RIGHT AND LEFT HAVE QUESTIONED THE USEFULNESS OF EQUALITY OF OPPORTUNITY AS AN ORGANIZING PRINCIPLE IN CAPTITALISTS SOCIETIES – {A} THE FORMER{ON RIGHT} BECAUSE GOVERNMENT EFFORTS TO MAINTAIN THE RIGHTS OF MINORITY GROUPS ARE SEEN AS TOO COSTLY TO MAINTAIN AND CONTRARY TO THE PRINCIPLES OF MARKET-DRIVEN EONOMIES, AND {B} THE LATTER {ON LEFT} BECAUSE THE PROMISED OPPORTUNITIES HAVE NOT BEEN DELIVERED FOR MANY PERSONS IN THE FORM OF SUBSTANTIAL SOCIAL ADVANCEMENT.

 

[EMERGENCE OF CONTEMPORARY DEBATES OVER THE FUTURE OF EDUCATION ======> ON ONE SIDE ARE PROPONENTSOF A CONSERVATIVE VIEW THAT SCHOOLS ARE FAILING TO TEACH THE FUNDAMENTAL KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS REQUIRED IN A CORE AREA OF ACADEMIC SUBJECTS, WHILE ON THE OTHER ARE PARENTS AND EMPLOYERS WHO DEMAND THAT SCHOOLING BE MADE MORE DIRECTLY RESPONSIVE TO LABOUR-FORCE REQUIREMENTS.]

 

[SUSTAINED ANALYSIS OF WHAT SCHOOLS DO AND WHY =====> EDUCATION SYSTEMS CANNOT BE AN EFFECTIVE PANACEA FOR SOCIAL AND LABOUR-MARKET PROBLEMS =====> IN PRACTICE, FORMAL SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION IN CAPITALIST SOCIETIES ARE DRIVEN BY TWO CONTRADICTORY DYNAMICS [1] ONE IS THE THRUST IN LIBERAL DEMOCRACIES TOWARD GREATER EQUALITY OF OPPORTUNITY AND PARTICIPATION IN EONOMIC AND POLITIAL LIFE FOR ALL MEMBERS OF SOCIETY; [2] THE OTHER IS THE FUNDAMENTAL CONFLICT AND STRUCTURED INEQUALITY UPON WHICH A CAPITALIST ECONOMY IS BASED ======> SO, WHILE EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS ARE SOCIAL DIVISIONS OF LABOUR GOVERNED BY RELATIONS OF DOMINATION, SUBORDINATION, AND EXPLOITATION, SCHOOLS REMAIN PART OF A PUBLIC SPHERE OF SOCIAL LIFE THAT IS OPEN TO SCRUTINY AND PARTICIPATION BY A DIVERSE, OFTEN CONFLICTING, ARRAY OF SOCIAL GROUPS.]

 

 

CONCLUSIONS:

 

1)   THE PRODUCTION OF UNEQUAL SOCIAL OPPORTUNITIES HAS BEEN A SYSTEMATIC, REGULAR FEATURE OF CANADA’S EDUCATION SYSTEM THAT HAS SERVED TO PERPETUATE THE INEQUALITIES EMBEDDED WITHIN CAPITALIST SOCIETY.

2)   WHAT IS AT ISSUE IN CONTEMPORARY DEMANDS FOR “QUALITY EDUCATION,” “LIFELONG LEARNING,” “FLEXIBILITY,” “ACCOUNTABILITY,” ANDCOMPETITIVENESS” IS NOT ALTRUISTIC CONCERN FOR THE LEARNER, BUT RATHER A DIRECT RESPONSE TO CAPITAL'S DEMANDS FOR AN AFFORDABLE, PRODUCTIVE, AND COMPLIANT WORK FORCE.

3)   EDUCATION REMAINS IMPORTANT BECAUSE IT PROVIDES CREDENTIALS AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR SOCIAL ADVANCEMENT, BUT IT ALSO MAINTAINS AND LEGITIMIZES EXISTING SOCIAL INEQUALITIES.

4)   THESE INEQUALITIES ARE LIKELY TO BE TRANSLATED INTO DIFFERENTIAL BENEFITS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN EMPLOYMENT, INCOME, AND OTHER AREAS BEYOND EDUCATION.

 

 

 

PART IV - GENDER PARADOXES PAY EQUITY & THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF CHILDCARE

 

A)        GENDER PARADOXES AND THE RISE OF CONTINGENT WORKER

 

THESIS: A FEMINIST POLITICAL ECONOMY OF THE LABOUR MARKET {FOCUSING ON SPECIFIC FEATURE OF WOMEN'S LABOUR MARKET EXPERIENCES}

 

BY THE MID-1990S ONLY 33 PERCENT OF CANADIANS HELD NORMAL JOBS {STANDARD EMPLOYMENT RELATIONSHIPS}; AND THERE WAS A PREDOMINANCE OF PRECARIOUS FORMS OF NONSTANDARD WORK THAT WAS PERSISTENLY GENDERED AND RACIALIZED IN CHARACTER.

 

CONTINGENT WORK INCLUDES THOSE FORMS OF EMPLOYMENT INVOLVING ATYPICAL EMPLOYMENT CONTRACTS, LIMITED SOCIAL BENEFITS AND STATUTORY ENTITLEMENTS, JOB INSECURITY, LOW JOB TENURE, LOW WAGES, AND HIGH RISKS OF ILL HEALTH =====> VULNERABLE POPULATIONS SUCH AS YOUTH, WOMEN AND IMMIGRANTS ARE OVERREPRSENTED IN CONTINGENT WORK.

 

CONTINGENCY WORK PRODUCED SEVERAL “GENDER PARADOXES” ======> (1) CONTINGENCY WORK CAN NO LONGER MEDIATE THE CONTRADICTION BETWEEN PRODUCTION AND REPRODUCTION{AS MORE PEOPLE WORK TO SUSTAIN THE HOUSEHOLD THE TIME DEVOTED TO SOCIAL REPRODUCTION DECLINES}; (2) THE IMPORTANCE OF WOMEN'S LABOUR IN SOCIAL REPRODUCTION IS BECOMING MORE VISIBLE {EVEN GARNERING ATTENTON FROM THE STATE --- DECLINING FERTILITY, CHILDCARE POLICY, TAX ASSISTANCE FOR CHILD CARE DEVELOMENT}; (3) CONTINGENCY NOT ONLY UNDERMINES THE STANDARD OF LIVING FOR WORKING PEOPLE, BUT ALSO JEOPARDIZES THE ABILITY OF PEOPLE TO REAR CHILDREN, CARE FOR LOVED ONES, AND CONTRIBUTE TO THE SOCIAL GOOD; (4) EVEN WITH WOMEN'S HIGH RATES OF LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION, THE STATE IS WITHDRAWING FURTHER THE PUBLIC SUPPORTS NECESSARY TO REPRODUCE A HEALTHY WORKING POPULATION.

 

SOLUTIONS: (1) CULTIVATE STATEGIES AROUND IMPROVED CHILCARE, EDUCATION, AND HEALTHCARE, AS WELL AS JUST IMMIGRATION POLICIES THAT ENABLE WORKERS TO RESIST CONTINGENCY; (2)  NONSTANDARD, OR “FLEXIBLE” FORMS OF WORK NEED NOT AMOUNT TO CONTINGENY WORK; RATHER, CERTAIN FORMS COULD CONTRIBUTE TO THE REDISTRIBUTION AND REDESIGN OF WORK AND WORKPLACES {INSTITUTIONALIZE FORMS OF LABOUR REGULATION THAT LINK PRODUCTION TO REPRODUCTION BY ELEVATING AND INTEGRATING THE IMPORTANCE OF THE TRADITIONALLY GENDERED WORK}.

 

 

B)        PAY EQUITY AND EMPLOYMENT EQUITY {ASIDE}

 

A NUMBER OF STRATEGIES HAVE BEEN IMPLEMENTED IN AN ATTEMPT TO ACHIEVE GREATER GENDER EQUALITY IN THE LABOUR MARKET. SINCE THE 1980'S THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT, SOME PROVINCIAL GOVERNMENTS, AND A NUMBER OF PRIVATE COMPANIES HAVE IMPLEMENTED PAY EQUITY AND EMPLOYMENT EQUITY POLICIES. {*PRO-ACTIVE STATEGIES TO ACCOMMODATE DIFFERENCES}

 

1)      PAY EQUITY ATTEMPTS TO RAISE THE VALUE OF THE WORK TRADITIONALLY PERFORMED BY WOMEN.

 

PAY EQUITY IS SOMETIMES CALLED COMPARABLE WORTH, AND IT REFLECTS THE BELIEF THAT WAGES OUGHT TO REFLECT THE WORTH OF A JOB, NOT THE GENDER OR RACE OF THE WORKER.

LEGISLATION: REQUIRES THAT SPECIFIC KINDS OF JOBS BE EXAMINED FOR DETERMINING (A) SEX SEGREGATION, AND (B) JOB VALUE WITHIN WORKPLACES.

HOW CAN THE COMPARABLE WORTH OF DIFFERENT JOBS BE DETERMINED(?)

ONE WAY IS TO COMPARE THE ACTUAL WORK OF WOMEN'S AND MEN'S  JOBS AND SEE IF THERE IS A DISPARITY IN THE SALARIES PAID FOR EACH. TO DO THIS, ANALYSTS BREAK A JOB INTO COMPONENTS – SUCH AS THE EDUCATION, TRAINING, AND SKILLS REQUIRED, THE EXTENT OF RESPONSIBILITY FOR OTHER'S WORK, AND WORK CONDITIONSAND THEN ALLOCATE POINTS FOR EACH.

FOR PAY EQUITY TO EXIST, MEN AND WOMEN IN OCCUPATIONS THAT RECEIVE THE SAME NUMBER OF POINTS SHOULD BE PAID THE SAME.

IN SHORT, PAY EQUITY PROMOTES THE PRINCIPLE OF EQUAL PAY FOR WORK OF EQUAL VALUE. {*EQUALITY OF CONDITIONS}

2)         EMPLOYMENT EQUITY STRATEGIES FOCUS ON WAYS TO MOVE WOMEN INTO HIGHER-PAYING JOBS TRADITIONALLY HELD BY MEN – BY:

ELIMINATING THE BARRIERS TO AND THE EFFECTS OF DISCRIMINATION, TO FULLY OPEN THE COMPETITION FOR JOB OPPORTUNITIES TO THOSE WHO HAVE BEEN EXCLUDED HISTORICALLY.

 

A)        ELIMINATE SYSTEMIC DISCRIMINATION.

B)        REMEDY THE EFFECTS OF PAST DISCRIMINATION.

C)        ACHIEVE A REPRESENTATIVE WORKFORCE.

 

THAT TARGET GROUPS FOR EMPLOYMENT EQUITY {AND “STATISTICAL EQUALITY” NOT MERELY “EQUAL TREATMENT”} ARE VISIBLE MINORITIES, PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES, ABORIGINAL PEOPLE AND WOMEN.

 

IN COMPARISON TO PAY EQUITY, WHICH ADDRESSES WAGE ISSUES ONLY, /// EMPLOYMENT EQUITY COVERS A RANGE OF EMPLOYMENT ISSUES SUCH AS RECRUITMENT, SELECTION, TRAINING, DEVELOPMENT, AND PROMOTION.

 

 

C)        {SOME} RESULTS AND CONTRADITIONS OF PAY EQUITY

 

PAY EQUITY IS AN EXAMPLE OF HOW FEMINIST ACTIVISTS AND OTHERS HAVE USED THE LAW TO TRANSFORM SOCIAL RELATIONS. IT HAS SIGNIFICANTLY IMPROVED WAGES FOR MANY WOMEN IN A WAY NO OTHER APPROACH HAS ACHIEVED. BUT THE TRANSFOMATIVE PROCESS AND THE RESULTS ARE CONTRADICTORY.

 

TRANSFORMATIVE RESULTS:

1)         IT HAS ENCOURAGED MANY WOMEN TO REASSESS THEIR WORK, TO EXAMINE THE KINDS OF SKILL, EFFORT, RESPONSIILITIES, AND WORKING CONDITIONS INVOLVED IN THEIR JOBS, AND TO DEMAND RECOGNITION.

2)         IT HAS REFLECTED AND PROMOTED SOME POWER SHIFTS WITHIN UNIONS AND WORKPLACES AND WITHIN SOCIETY AS A WHOLE AS WOMEN’S WORK WAS REGARDED IN A NEW AND MORE VALUED WAY.

3)         IT CHALLENGED SOME OLD HIERARCHIES IN WORKPLACES AND UNIONS.

 

RESISTANCE:

1)      DIFFERENCES IN WAGES AMONG WOMEN HAVE INCREASED (ARMSTONG AND CORNISH, 1997).

2)      EMPLOYERS HAVE BECOME MUCH MORE SKILLED AT  USING THE LAW TO RESIST.

3)       MORE AND MORE THE “LIMITED” SUCCESSES OF SOME GROUPS IN WORKING TOWARDS PAY EQUITY IS DEFINED AS A PROBLEM SOLVED – AND THERE ARE DEMANDS TO MOVE ON TO “OTHER ISSUES.”

4)       WOMEN’S VICTORIES ARE UNDERMINED BY NEW STATEGIES SUCH AS CONTRACTING-OUT AND A REFUSAL TO FUND.

5)       {IN SOME CASES} THE FAILURE TO UNDERSTAND OR PROMOTE PAT EQUITY HAS LED TO A REINFORCEMENT OF OLD HIERARCHIES AND TO TOO MUCH FOCUS ON “LEGAL PROCESSES, RATHER THAN STRATEGIES FOR CHANGE.”

CONCLUSIONS:

COMBINDED WITH A NEW {NEO-LIBERALISM} EMPHASIS ON MARKET FORCES AND DEREGULATION, PAY EQUITY WAS DIFFICULT TO IMPLEMENT IN THE FACE OF MOUNTING RESISTANCE =====> AT THE SAME TIME, HOWEVER, SUCH LEGISLATION IS NOW OFTEN THE ONLY PROTECTION WOMEN HAVE AGAINST THE PRESSURES OF EFFICENCY, WHICH ARE DEFINED SOLELY IN TERMS OF PROFITS AND MARKETS ====> ESPECIALLY IN SUCH TIME, ANY HUMAN RIGHTS LEGISLATION HAS TO BE DEFENDED AND EXTENDED AS A COUNTER TO MARKET FORCES.

 

D)        THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF CHILDCARE

THESIS: THE CURRENT INTEREST IN FUNDING EARLY CHILDHOOD DEVELOPMENT HAS HELPED TO CEMENT A TRIPLE-PRONGED DISCOURSE AROUND CHILDCARE {DISCOURSES ON – CHILD DEVELOPMENT / INVESTMENT IN HUMAN CAPITAL / INCREASE PARENTAL LABOUR FORCE PARTICATION}

 

THE HISTORY OF THE ORGANIZED STRUGGLE FOR CHILDCARE IN CANADA HAS BEEN A LONG ONE =====> THE ROLE OF CHILDCARE HAS CHANGED FROM THE INITIATION OF THE WOMEN'S MOVEMENT ---- ORIGINALLY IT WAS CONSIDERED TO HELP EQUAL RIGHTS FOR WOMEN AND SUPPORTING WOMEN'S NEEDS {SOCIAL JUSTICE PERSPECTIVE} ---- NOW IT IS RECAST BY THE STATE AS A “THREE-PRONGED DISCOURSE” ON {1} SUPPORTING HEATHY CHILD DEVELOPMENT, {2} INVESTING IN CHILDREN FOR FUTURE PAYOFF TO SOCIETY, AND {3}AS AN INSTRUMENT FOR INVOLVING THE LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION OF TWO PARENTS {EARLY CHILDHOOD DEVELOPMENT}

 

THE CHILD CARE STRUGGLE/ISSUE IN CANADA IS MARKED BY ABANDONED ATTEMPTS AT CREATING A NATIONAL STRATEGY (WITHOUT MUCH PUBLIC OUTCRY).

 

IN RECENT YEARS, PRESCHOOL EDUCATIONAL HAS BEEN DEFINED AS AN EARLY AND CRITICAL CONTRIBUTION TO MEETING THE LIFE-LONG LEARNING REQUIREMENTS ASSOCIATED WITH AN EMERGENT “KNOWLEDGE-BASED ECONOMY.” ====> COST-CONSCIOUS GOVERNMENTS PRESENT EARL CHILDHOOD EDUCATION AS A MEANS OF REDUCING FUTURE COSTS GENRATED BY UNEMPLOYMENT AND/OR CRIME =====> THE DISCOURSE SURROUNDING CHILDCARE POLICY

 

CREATIVE TRANSFORMATIONS --- TRANSFORMATIVE POLITICS --- TODAY INVOLVES MULTIPLE ROUTES, RATHER THAN A SINGLE PATH =====> AS PROVINCES MOVE IN DIFFERENT DIRECTIONS, STRONG NETWORKS THAT CONNECT CHILDCARE ADVOCATES AND THEIR ALLIES FROM THE LOCAL TO THE PROVINCIAL AND NATIONAL LEVELS BECOME AN ESSENTIAL MEANS OF LEARNING FROM EXPERIENCE AND OF DEVELOPING THE POLICY CAPACITY NECESSARY TO INFLUENCE SEVERAL LEVELS OF GOVERNMENT AT ONCE.