The Art of Plants
Cornus sericea (red-osier)
Cornus sericea L. is a common shrub, usually known as red-osier. It grows on
disturbed sites and is considered a good prospect for land reclamation. The common name
red-osier refers to the bright red stems that stand out in winter-time. The leaves change
to a fiery red in the fall, matching the stems and buds.
The fiery red foliage is thought to protect the leaves from oxidative damage (Why leaves turn red in autumn. The role of anthocyanins in senescing leaves of red-osier dogwood. By Taylor S. Feild, David W. Lee, and N. Michele Holbrook. Plant Physiology 127(2):566-574 --circa 2001).
The flowers of the inflorescence and the fruits are both white. The fruits are a favorite of birds in mid to late summer.
Ambrosia (ragweed)
Ambrosia artemisiifolia L. is a roadside weed, usually known as common ragweed. It is wind
pollinated and a prolific producer of allergenic pollen --a major cause of late summer allergies in
people.
The floral structures are surprisingly complex, as befits a member of the Asteraceae (Composite)
family. The upper spike is comprised of staminate (male) involucres, just beneath are the carpellate
(female) involucres.
Illustrations from CE Wood Jr. A Student's Atlas of Flowering Plants: Some Dicotyledons of
Eastern North America (by Rachael Ann Wheeler)(circa 1975) show the female
(bottom left) and male (bottom right) inflorescences in a clearly discernible way.
Native to North America, Ambrosia artemisiifolia L. and closely related Ambrosia trifida L. (giant ragweed) (upper right --from Frère Marie-Victorin Flore Laurentienne, drawn by Frère Alexandre)(circa 1935) are now distributed globally.
Sambucus (elder)
Leaf bud break and leaf development (above --circa 2024). Inflorescences (circa 2024) and flowers (circa 2021) below.
Elder (Sambucus canadensis L.) usually keeps its roots wet in swamps and by lakeshores. It is probably
a member of the Caprifoliaceae (honeysuckle) family.
The elderberries ripen in late summer (Helen
Sharp --upper right) (circa 1888-1910).
They are used to make
elderberry wine --made famous by Elton John in a circa 1972 song of the same name. From the chorus:
Drunk all the time. Feeling fine. On elderberry wine.
The berries are often boiled down to a jam, if birds and other animals have not harvested them already!
Phaseolus (beans)
After last frost, it is time for pole beans to ascend, flower, and fruit. Phaseolus vulgaris L. (common
bean) has gone by many different names: Of these, Phaseolus esculentus Salisb. indicates how "edible", "delicious"
and "nourishing" it is!
Cultivars range from bush beans to the pole beans pictured here, per Garsault, F.A.P. de: Description, vertus et usages de sept cents dix-neuf plantes, tant étrangères que de nos climats (circa 1764-1767(left)(translated: Description, virtues and uses of seven hundred and nineteen plants, both foreign and of our climates). The common bean was originally domesticated in Central and South America about 5,000 years ago, and is now cultivated globally.
Give it a taste!
Salix (willow)
Spring promises are exemplified by the black willows (Salix nigra Marshall). From a distance, they provide the
first hint of green in wetlands along rivers and creeks. Close up, emerging leaves expand from a micro-template within
the dormant buds. The mature leaves (left) are an illustration by Paul Landacre (circa 1948) in Donald
Culcross Peattie's A Natural History of North America Trees. Peattie emphasizes the importance of black willows
for protecting river banks from erosion.
Some examples of bud break (circa 27 March -- 02 April 2021 and circa 27 March -- 06 April 2021):
and willow stipules and leaves beginning to unfold (circa 08 April -- 10 April 2021), followed by
catkin-like inflorescences (female for this tree) (circa 15 April -- 26 April 2021):
Buds (tree buds)
With winter cold, not much growing but a lot of dormancy, including dormant buds on trees.
With spring, the buds will break dormancy, releasing either flowers, or leaves, or both. Changes in color
and size anticipate the explosion of flowers and leaves --such as the sugar maple (Acer saacharum Marshall)
(right) (circa 1969) from Harlow and Harrar's Textbook of Dendrology (5th edition), and
redbud (above).
Some examples of dormant tree buds: Apple (Pyrus malus L.) and Silver Maple (Acer saacharinum L.)
Hackberry (Celtis occidentalis L.) and Willow (Salix nigra Marshall)
Willow (Salix nigra Marshall) breaking bud early in the spring (circa 27 March 2021)
Mycophycophyta (lichens)
Although the taxonomic term Mycophycophyta evokes the symbiotic relation between a fungus (Mycota, usually
an Ascomycota) and an algae (Phycophyte, usually a Chlorophyta), it implies a unique genetic identity, so many lichenologists
think the taxonomic term is misleading and call them just lichens --totally cool and unique.
Lecanora encrusting a branch shows the ascomata from which lichen spores are released.
The intertwining of fungal
mycelium and algal cells are shown in a diagram from Bergen's Practical Botany (circa 1911).
Lichens can grow on many harsh substrates, such as stone and concrete.
When looked at close-up, lichens can certainly exhibit artistic flair!
Helianthus (sunflower)
Helianthus annuus L. is an Asteraceae originally cultivated by native Americans in regions surrounding the confluence
of the Ohio and Mississippi rivers. Now, it is grown as an oil seed crop throughout the world.
The flowers are quite large and bloom from mid-summer (right).
The flower is a composite of many flowers. Ray flowers look like petals and disc flowers form the 'eye' of the
composite flower. The disc flowers mature from the outside to the inside (right).
Striking images of the sunflower were created by Vincent Van Gogh (circa 1888-1889)(below).
Sunflowers are usually farmed for their oil or their seeds. But I have seen them grown with oat as a cover crop: to minimize erosion and soil loss (circa 2021)(below).
Taraxacum (dandelion)
Taraxacum officinale F.H. Wiggers is a cosmopolitan weed closely associated with the human species.
It grows abundantly on disturbed sites (such as pastures, above). It survives adversity (including weeding) quite well,
due in part to its root(s), from which the aboveground basal leaves and flowers can readily regenerate. The deep taproot
is shown in the botanical illustration (right) --from Annales des Sciences Naturelle Botanique (circa
1895)-- drawn by B. Herincq.
The flowers bloom from mid-morning to late afternoon, and attract a wide diversity of insect pollinators. The flower is actually an tightly compact inflorescence --comprised of many flowers-- a common feature of the Asteraceae.
The dandelion's reputation is in the eye of the beholder. To some, a noxious weed. To some, a delicacy to garnish a salad. To others, a beautiful splash of yellow in early spring (above), followed by the silver of the seedheads (below).
Conzya (horseweed)
Conzya canadensis (L.) Cronq. (formerly Erigeron canadensis) is a north american species commonly found on disturbed
sites. The botanical illustration (right) comes from Deutschlands Flora in Abbildungen (circa 1796),
drawn by Johann Sturm.
In the United States and Canada, it is a major concern for soybean farmers: Conzya-infested fields have significantly lower crop yields. Since it is becoming resistant to glyphosate (Round-Up), it is an especial problem for farmers using no tillage techniques to minimize soil erosion.
In the late summer, as the soybean crop matures, the Conzya canadensis plants are very easy to see, towering over the soybean in colonies of various sizes. The seeds are readily wind dispersed, one of the reasons (in addition to inadvertent dispersal by humans) that it has spread throughout the globe as an invasive weed.
Cercis (redbud) redux
Redbud (Cercis canadensis) has already been documented on ars plantarium (Cercis (redbud)).
Over the winter, about 50 seeds were harvested from a local tree. One of the seeds broke dormancy this spring (right),
creating an opportunity to document leaf development soon after germination.
As described by Michel Afanasiev (circa 1944), like many leguminous trees, Cercis canadensis seeds
(left) are very dormant: because of both an impermeable seed coat and a highly dormant embryo. So even if
the seed coat is treated --either mechanically or with acid-- so that the seed can imbibe water, the embryo will still remain
dormant for an extended period of time.
The second (left) and third (right) leaves emerge in a zig-zag pattern of leaf development that is retained as the tree grows.
In its natural shaded habitat, the mature leaves cover almost 100% of the area in a plane to maximize the capture of light for photosynthesis (below).
Rumex (curled dock)
Curled dock (Rumex crispus) is a common roadside perennial plant, distinctive for its brown coloration as the seeds mature
in mid-summer.
Although the leaves can be eaten, they tend to contain high levels of oxalic acid (hence mouth-puckering). Rumex is a
major genus in the Polygonaceae family, a family that includes knotweeds, buckwheat and rhubarb.
The botanical illustration by Norman Criddle (lower left) is from a 'modern' publication: Farm Weeds of Canada by CJ Clark and J Fletcher (circa 1906). The fanciful illustration (lower right) of garden sorrel (Rumex acetosa) is from a Book of Hours by Jean Bourdichon (circa 1505-1510).
Trifolium (white clover)
White clover (Trifolium repens) is a cosmopolitan forage legume deliberately planted in pastures, and common
in lawns, roadsides, and other disturbed sites. It spreads by recumbent stems growing at the soil interface, leaves are initiated
at regular intervals and grow to a height of about 5-10 cm.
Inflorescences appear in early to mid-summer. Many bee species (including honeybees) pollinate the flowers. Clover honey (Ontario No. 1 white/blanc)
is one delicious product of clover meadows.
Eventually the seed pods will mature and seeds will be dispersed to germinate in fall or spring.
Agaricales (gilled mushrooms)
Agaricales (the gilled mushrooms) includes both edible and highly poisonous mushrooms. Anywhere there is organic matter to
feed on, they are likely to appear, often after prolonged rain (right). Jean Baptiste François Pierre Bulliard (Pierre Bulliard) was one of the first
botanists to provide a comprehensive survey of gilled mushroom species in France (left) (circa 1786).
There is a long tradition of mushroom hunting in human
society. The examples shown here are the Mushroom Hunters of Kumano (a ukiyo-e print from the Japanese artist Hiroshige Utagawa (left),
(circa 1860) and mushroom gathering in the forest by the Russian impressionist Sergei Vinogradov (below)
(circa 1927).
Cercis (redbud)
Redbud (Cercis canadensis) is an understory tree of southernly forests, but does extend north
into Heartland (southwestern) Ontario. Over the winter months, the buds must survive snow,
hoarfrost, ice, and temperatures that drop below zero Fahrenheit (-20 Celsius) (montage above). Once warm
temperatures arrive, the flower buds break dormancy and start to unfold (montage at right). Soon, the leaves at
the branch tips follow suit (left).
Donald Culcross Peattie's A Natural History of North America Trees (illustrations by Paul
Landacre)(circa 1948) provides some of its natural history. George Washington
transplanted redbud from the woods to his garden for its early spring blossoms.
Peattie also writes that redbud was mentioned by John Lawson (A New Voyage to Carolina (circa 1709)) for the use of its blossoms in spring salads ("The Red-Bud-Tree bears a purple Lark-Heel, and is the best Sallad, of any Flower I ever saw. It is ripe in April and May."). Redbud flowers are still considered a delicacy today.
Redbud is a welcome sign of spring.
Medicago (alfalfa)
Alfalfa (Medicago sativa) is a perennial forage crop, usually cut, dried, baled, and stored
to feed dairy cattle over the winter months. Alfalfa was originally domesticated in Iran millennia
ago, and is a preferred forage crop because of its high protein content. Like many legumes, the
roots grow very deep (and quickly). There is a symbiotic relation with nitrogen-fixing bacteria
(Rhizobia) in root nodules that provide nitrogen for protein production. Thus, alfalfa enriches the
soil as a byproduct of its growth. The root illustrations are attributed to Miss Annie Morgensen and
Mrs. F.C. Jean in Development and Activities of Roots of Crop Plants. A Study in Crop Ecology
By John E. Weaver, Frank C. Jean and John W. Crist (circa 1922)(published by the
Carnegie Institution of Washington --Publication No. 316). Inflorescences, flowers and pods are shown below.
Alfalfa harvest.
Galium (bedstraws)
Galium (bedstraws) are a common herbaceous plant of woods and meadows. A member of the Rubiaceae
family, but unlike Coffea (coffee) they have little economic value,. They may have been used
for bedding per their common name (bedstraws). Many of the species have minute barbs, that allow
them to cling to each other in a three-dimensional network.
Wikipedia lists some of the names for a common barbed species (Galium aparine --shown above
and to the right): cleavers, goosegrass, catchweed, stickyweed, robin-run-the-hedge, stickeljack,
and grip grass, et cetera. The names give a practical idea about the grip of the barbs.
A non-barbed species (probably Galium mollugo) is shown to the left. It has been tapped by a xylem sap sucker, a spittlebug so named because of the spit-like residue it produces when feeding.
Gleditsia (honeylocust)
Honeylocust (Gleditsia tricanthos) is a common tree --from the legume family-- that comes in two
varieties, either thorned or thornless. The thornless variety (inermis) is commonly planted as a
shade tree. The tree silhouette of a honeylocust tree on the left comes from Native Trees of
Canada by R.C. Hosie (circa 1979). The honeylocust branch on the right (with a
red eyed vireo) comes from the Birds of America by John J. Audubon (circa
1832).
The horticultural varieties have only staminate (male) flowers, so they don't produce the legume fruit pods.
Carbon dioxide (photosynthesis)
Charles David Keeling (Scripps Institution of Oceanography) measured carbon dioxide concentrations for extended periods of time in a number of locations around the world. The best known data are from Mauna Loa, Hawaii (red). The steady rise in carbon dioxide concentrations has been a key observation in support of 'global warming', since elevated atmospheric carbon dioxide acts to 'trap' long wave IR radiation, resulting in elevated atmospheric temperatures (the greenhouse effect). There are noticeable yearly 'wiggles' in the data series. The annual fluctuation is very large at northern latitudes (Point Barrow, Alaska data, upper blue), smaller in magnitude at mid northern latitudes (Mauna Loa, Hawaii, middle red), and absent in southern latitudes (Argentina, lower black). The annual fluctuation is due to seasonal variations in photosynthesis and respiration of terrestrial plants (northern latitudes contain most of the earth's land mass). Normally, the yearly cycles are well balenced, since the magnitude of the fluctuation is little changed, even as carbon dioxide concentrations have increased. The data are clear evidence for the Power of Photosynthesis in biotic control of the earth's environment.
Data source: ftp://aftp.cmdl.noaa.gov/data/trace_gases/co2/flask/
Triticum (wheat)
Early summer flowering of a winter wheat variety of Triticum aestivum in an Ontario field (circa 2016).
Triticum aestivum: From The Genera of Grasses of the United States (circa 1920)
(by A.S. Hitchcock). The illustrations were drawn by Mary Wright Gill (habit) and Agnes Chase (spikelet and spike details).
Harvesting grain (possibly wheat) in ancient Egypt (circa 1350 BCE). The illustrations were drawn
by an unknown tomb painter.
Zea (maize)
Zea mays seedlings in an Ontario corn field (circa 2016).
Zea mays: From De Historia Stirpium (circa 1542)
(Leonhart Fuchs' herbal with illustrations drawn and printed from nature by Albrecht Meyer, Heinrich Füllmaurer, and Veit Rudolph Speckle)
and New Kreuterbuch (circa 1543).
Originally domesticated in Central America, Zea mays was deified by both the Mayans and Aztecs.
The Mayan Maize God is emerging from the earth, assisted by his twin sons who are watering him (circa 715).
The Aztec God is a modern sculpture by Angel Ceron based on a depiction in the Codex Borgia
(circa 1400).
Sources: www.mfa.org/collections/object/codex-style-plate-36320 and http://www.novica.com/itemdetail/index.cfm?pid=216782
Cornus (dogwood)
Cornus alternifolia in Ontario (circa 2016): Bud dormancy break in early spring.
Cornus alternifolia from Sargent's Silva of North America (circa 1892): Drawn by Charles Edward Faxon.
Cornus alternifolia in Ontario (circa 2016): Leaf emergence in early spring
Glycine (soybean)
Glycine max (circa 1712): An illustration from Kaempfer's Amoenitatum Exoticarum introducing soybean to Europe.
Glycine max (?) from von Jacquin's Hortus botanicus (circa 1770): Drawn by Franz Anton von Scheidel.
Glycine max in Ontario: seedlings at the beginning of the growing season (circa 2016)
and mature plants ready for harvest (circa 2015).
Soybean is commonly planted in rotation with corn on Ontario farms.
Solidago (goldenrod)
Solidago canadensis from Frere Marie-Victorin's Flore Laurentienne (circa 1935): Drawn by Frere Alexandre Blouin.
Solidago canadensis (circa 1897): An illustration from Favourite Flowers of Garden and Greenhouse (E Step and D Bois)
Solidago canadensis in Toronto (circa 2015): Canadian goldenrod has a global distribution.
Coronilla (crown vetch)
Coronilla varia (as Securidacae) from Clusius's Rariorum plantarum historia (circa 1601): Crown vetch.
Coronilla varia (circa 1968): An illustration by Roger Tory Peterson from A Field Guide to Wildflowers
of Northeastern and North-central North America (Roger Tory Peterson and Margaret McKenny)
Coronilla varia in Toronto (circa 2015): Crown vetch was introduced as ground cover to prevent erosion,
but can be an aggressive weed. Here are inflorescences at different developmental stages.
And here are the developing compound leaves.
Centaurea (knapweed)
"Cyanus maior" from Gerarde's Herball (circa 1636): Great Blew-Bottle --related to knapweed (Centaurea).
And Centaurea montana (circa 1790): An illustration by Sydenham Edwards from Curtis's Botanical Magazine
(source: Kew Botanic Garden website)
Centaurea nigra in Toronto (circa 2015): Knapweed is beautiful, cosmopolitan, but can be an aggressive weed.
Centaurea nigra from the Illustrated Companion to Gleason and Cronquist's Manual (1998): by Noel Holmgren. This illustration was drawn
by Lucille E. Kopp (circa 1948).
Plantago (plantain)
Plantago minor from Herbarum Vivae Eicones (circa 1530): Otto Brunsfels' herbal with illustrations made from nature by Hans Weiditz.
And from De Historia Stirpium (circa 1542): Leonhart Fuchs' herbal with illustrations drawn and printed
from nature by Albrecht Meyer, Heinrich Füllmaurer, and Veit Rudolph Speckle.
Plantago lanceolata from the Illustrated Companion to Gleason and Cronquist's Manual (1998): by Noel Holmgren. This illustration was drawn
by Walter Lincoln Graham (circa 1940's).
Plantago major from Toronto (circa 2015): The flowering plant and inflorescences at bud, flowering and fruiting stages.
Sonchus (sow thistle)
Sonchus asper from A Curious Herbal (circa 1737): Elizabeth Blackwell drew, engraved and coloured her illustrations for her herbal of medicinal plants.
And Sonchus arvensis from Flora Batavia (circa 1800): illustration by Christiaan Sepp.
Sonchus arvensis from the Illustrated Companion to Gleason and Cronquist's Manual (1998): by Noel Holmgren. This illustration was drawn
by Walter Lincoln Graham (circa 1940's).
Sonchus arvensis from Toronto (circa 2015): Inflorescences at bud, flowering and fruiting stages.
Cyperus (sedge)
Cyperus alternifolius (Umbrella Sedge) Flowers.
The diagrams come from Lawrence (1951) Taxonomy of Vascular Plants.
Marion E. Ruff was the illustrator.
Here are higher magnification images of the flowers and isolated pollen.
