REVIEW – OCTOBER

RACISM AND THE LAW

AK/POLS/SOCI 3561 6.0A

{SYNOPSIS AND GENERAL OVERVIEW: THE FIRST SECTION OF THE COURSE HAS BEEN DIVIDED INTO FOUR SUBJECT AREAS: (1) THE STUDY OF “SOCIAL INEQUALITY.” (2) THE “ETHNICITY” EXPERIENCE, (3) ETHNICITYAND RACE AND DEBATES OVER “WHITENESS” {AS AN ETHNICITY}. (4) THE SOCIOLOGY OF RACISM {[A] DEFINITIONS; [B] FORMS.

{THE SOCIOLOGICAL KEY === IN THIS FIRST SECTION OF THE COURSE WE LEARNED ABOUT THE CHARACTERISTICS AND DYNAMICS OF ETHNICITY AND RACE AND THEIR RELATION TO DISCRIMINATION IN SOCIETY

PART I --- SOCIAL INEQUALITY

(A) WHAT IS SOCIAL INEQUALITY?

{MINORITIES CHANGING FACE OF TORONTO EXERCISE – DYNAMICS OF GROUP RELATING}

ALL SOCIOLOGISTS AGREE – SOCIAL INEQUALITY IS STRUCTURED (PATTERNED AND PREDICTABLE) AND MANIFESTED IN STRATIFICATION SYSTEM(S) BASED ON A HIERARCHY OF PROPERTY, POWER AND PRESTIGE THAT COALESCE AROUND CONSEQUENTIAL SOCIAL DIFFERENCES – CLASS, GENDER, RACE AND ETHNICITY.

(B) WHAT DOES AGREEMENT IMPLY?

SOCIAL INEQUALITY - IS STRUCTURED AND RECURRENT PATTERNS OF INEQUITABLE GROUP RELATIONS [*****DOMINANT-SUBDOMINANT INTERACTION].

SOCIAL INEQUALITY - IS CHARACTERIZED BY THE EXISTENCE OF UNEQUAL OPPORTUNITIES AND REWARDS FOR DIFFERENT SOCIAL POSITIONS OR STATUSES WITHIN A GROUP OR SOCIETY.

FOR SOCIAL SCIENCE, SOCIAL INEQUALITY IS A PHENOMENON THAT REFLECTS PATTERNS OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION BY WHICH SOCIETY IS DIVIDED INTO UNEQUAL “STRATA” ALONG THE LINES OF CLASS, GENDER, RACE AND ETHNICITY.

INDIVIDUALS STUDYING SOCIAL INEQUALITY ARE ATTEMPTING TO ANSWER THE QUESTIONS OF WHO GETS WHAT? AND WHY? IMBEDDED IN THESE TWO QUESTIONS ARE MANY MORE ISSUES, SUCH AS THE FOLLOWING: WHAT KIND OF DISTRIBUTION DOES THE GENERAL PUBLIC VIEW AS FAIR? DO SOME INDIVIDUALS FACE OBSTACLES IN ATTAINING SOCIAL REWARDS THAT OTHERS DO NOT FACE? ARE ADVANTAGES AND/OR DISADVANTAGES INCURRED BY DIFFERENT CATEGORIES OF PEOPLE IN ATTAINING SOCIAL REWARDS?

C) WHAT ARE THE CAUSES OF SOCIAL INEQUALITY?

1. BIOLOGY =====> GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS/ EVOLUTIONARY ADAPTIONS/ DEFECTIVE GENES.

2. PSYCHOLOGY ======> PSYCHOLOGICAL ATTRIBUTES / WEAK MORAL FIBRE / WORK AND ACHIEVEMENT ETHIC.

3. CULTURE ======> SOCIALIZING FACTORS OF CULTURE (DEPREVATION) LEAD TO SELF-FULFILLING PROPHECY AND PERPETUATION OF POVERTY “NORMS” FROM GENERATION TO GENERATION.

4. STRUCTURAL ======> (REFERS TO THOSE ASPECTS OF SOCIETY THAT INVOLVE A PATTERNED AND RECURRENT SET OF RULES, ROLES, AND RELATIONS) SOCIAL CONTEXTS/ BARRIERS THAT LIMIT AND CONSTRAIN – CONSTRUCTED AROUND RULING CLASS/ ELITE PRIORITIES – ACTS AS FORMS OF DOMINATION, EXPLOITATION, AND EXCLUSION.

PART II – ETHNICITY

{HYPENATED CANADIAN EXERCISE – THE ETHNORACIAL EXPLOSION}

A) THE “ETHNICITY” EXPERIENCE

HYPENATION IS AN IMPORTANT PHENOMENON FOR UNDERSTANDING ETHNICITY AND RACE IN A CANADIAN CONTEXT

“HYPENATED CANADIAN” IS AN INDIVIDUAL WHO DESCRIBES THEMSELF AND DEFINES THEIR IDENTITY AS A COMBINATION OF ETHNIC OR RACIAL BACKGROUND AND NATIONAL BACKGROUND.

WE IDENTIFY OURSELVES USING MULTIPLE MEASURES AND YARDSTICKS ====> THESE MULTIPLE IDENTITIES ARE FLUID AND PLURAL.

HYPENATED CANADIANS ARE INDIVIDUALS WHO DEFINE THEMSELVES AS CANADIANS BUT ALSO AS PART OF ANOTHER ETHNICTY OR RACE.

HYPENATED CANADIANS IS THE COMBINATION OF ETHNIC OR RACIAL “SUBCULTURE” AND NATIONAL “CULTURE IN THE FORMATION OF IDENTITY.

ETHNICITY AND RACE ARE SOURCES OF MEANING, STATUS AND ATTACHMENT {IE., INDIVIDUAL AND SOCIAL “IDENTITY” FORMATION}.

HYPHENATION IS A GLOBAL PHENOMENON {VARIOUSLY TERMED “THE ETHNIC REVOLUTION,” “THE ETHNIC EXPLOSION” OR “THE ETHNIC REVIVAL”} =====> ETHNICITY CAN BE TYPED AND/OR CHARACTERIZED AS FOLLOWS: [A] PRIMORDIALIST (ESSENTIALIST -- “[STICK TO] YOUR OWN KIND” ), [B] INSTRUMENTALIST (INTEREST AND STATUS-ORIENTED – ETHNICITY EXISTS AS A BUFFER FOR INSULATING INDIVIDUALS FROM THE PRESSURES OF A MODERN, CHANGING, AND COMPLEX SOCIETY. A COMMITMENT TO ETHNICITY ALLOWS AN ESCAPE FROM FEELINGS OF IRRELEVANCE, POWERLESSNESS, ALIENATION, AND IMPERSONALITY. ); [C] RESOURCE MOBILIZATION /IDENTITY THESIS (ETHNICITY AS A MEANS TO AN END – ETHNIC MINORITIES BY VIRTUE OF PERCEIVED COMMONALITY WILL TAKE UNITED ACTION TO LAY CLAIM TO RIGHTFUL ENTITLEMENT, TO HINDER INTRUSION OF THE STATE INTO THEIR COLLECTIVE AFFAIRS, AND TO INSPIRE A CO-ORDINATE RESPONSE TO THREATS OF CULTURAL SELF-DETERMINATION); [D] CONSTRUCTIVIST [CREATION OF ETHNICITY THROUGH MEANINGFUL INTERACTION IN RESPONSE TO SPECIFIC SOCIAL CONSEQUENCES – E.G. POLITICAL AND/OR INSURRECTIONIST] {SEE FLERAS PP. 95}

PART III --- ETHNICITY AND RACE AND “WHITENESS”

1) DEBATES OVER “WHITENESS” AS AND ETHNICITY

THE DEBATE SUGGESTS ON THE ONE SIDE THAT MAINSTREAM WHITES DO NOT HAVE AN ETHNICITY, AND ON THE OTHER THAT THEY DO. WHAT IS THE LOGIC PRESENTED ON BOTH SIDES?

ENGLISH-SPEAKING CANADIANS OF EUROPEAN DESCENT ARE RELUCTANT TO DEFINE THEMSELVES AS AN ETHNICITY, PREFERRING INSTEAD, TO CONCEAL THERE “ETHNIC-NESS BY ATTRIBUTING ETHNICITY ONLY TO “MINORITIES” WHILE IMPLYING “WHITENESS” AS THE TACITLY ACCEPTED NORM AROUND WHICH “OTHER” ETHNICITIES ORBIT.[PP. 84]

DEBATES OVER WHITENESS AS AN ETHNICITY ARE INCREASINGLY POLARIZED. TO ONE SIDE ARE THOSE WHO ARGUE THAT MAINSTREAM WHITES DO NOT HAVE ETHNICITY === LOGIC OF ARGUMENT: {1} (BECAUSE) MOST ARE UNAWARE OF THEIR SHARED INDENTITY AS A CONSCIOUS DISTINCTION. THEY JUST ARE, AND LABELLING THEM AS ETHNIC IS INCONSITENT WITH COMMONLY ACCEPTED DEFINITIONS OF ETHNICITY AS SHARED AWARENESS OF GROUP BELONGING, COMMON ANCESTRY, CULTURE, AND IDENTITY.

TO THE OTHER SIDE ARE THOSE WHO CONTEND THAT EVERYBODY {INCLUDING WHITES} IS ETHNICALLY LOCATED WHETHER AWARE OF IT OR NOT =====> LOGIC OF LATTER ARGUMENT: ALL POSITIONS IN SOCIETY ARE SITUATED; THERE IS NO POSITION FROM NO-WHERE =====>HEREIN LIES THE “GENIUS” OF WHITE PRIVILEGE: {1}WHITENESS IS EVERTHING BECAUSE IT IS PRECEIVED BY WHITES TO BE NOTHING IN PARTICULAR. {2} AT THE SAME TIME, WHITENESS IS NOTHING BECAUSE OF ITS TENDENCY TOWARD THE NORMATIVE IN COLONIZING THE DEFINITION OF NORMALITY =====> TO EXCLUDE WHITENESS AS AN UNMARKED RACE CATEGORY THAT STANDS OUTSIDE HISTORY OR CONVENTION IS TO REDOUBLE ITS HEGEMON BY NATURALIZING IT =====> THE CAPACITY TO BE EVERYTHING AND NOTHING (AND VISA VERSA) MAKES IT DOUBLY IMPORTANT TO FOSTER AWARENESS OF WHITENESS AS IF IT WERE A “RACE” IN ALIGNMENT WITH OTHER “RACES” -- IE., MAKE ITS INVISIBILITY VISIBLE {2005: 36}.

CANADA'S MULTICULTURAL SOCIETY WILL FLOURISH ONLY WHEN WHITES ACKNOWLEDGE, THEY TOO ARE PART OF THE MOSAIC RATHER THAN THE GROUP THAT KEEPS EVERYONE IN PLACE.

PART IV --- THE SOCIOLOGY OF RACISM

{THE “PROBLEMIZATION” OF BLACK YOUTH EXERCISE}

(A) DEFINITIONS OF RACISM

RACISM IS MULTIDIMENTIONAL AND USUALLY SORTS ITSELF OUT IN SEVERAL [INTERRELATED] CATEGORIES OF DEFINITIONS: RACISM AS BIOLOGY, AS IDEOLOGY, AS CULTURE, AND AS POWER ====>

RACISM AS BIOLOGY (“RACISM AS RACE”) =====> [1] THE BELIEF THAT PEOPLE'S BEHAVIOR IS DETERMINED BY GENES OR BIOLOGY {EX: BLACKS AS NATURALLY-BORN ATHLETS, JAPANESS AS NATURALLY-GIFTED SCIENTISTS; ARABS AS FANATICS, ETC} --- [2] THE USE OF RACE AS A BASIS FOR ENTITLEMENT OR EVALUATION OF OTHERS {EX: TO EXCLUDE OTHERS BECAUSE OF SKIN COLOUR IS RACIST; TO INCLUDE OTHERS ON SIMILAR GROUNDS IS NO LESS RACIST --- [3] RACISM AS BIOLOGY REFERS TO THE PROCESS OF ATTACHING AN EVALUATIVE AND MORAL QUALITY TO PERCEIVED BIOLOGICALLY DIFFERENCES.

RACISM AS IDEOLOGY ======> [1] TRANSFORMS RACE-BASED DIFFERENCES INTO A HIERARCHY THAT JUSTIFIES THE DOMINANCE OF ONE GROUP OVER ANOTHER --- [2] A RELATIVELY COHESIVE SET OF BELIEFS (“IDEOLOGY”) AND PRACTICES IS IMPOSED THAT LABELS, CLASSIFIES, EVALUATES, AND RANKS MEMBERS OF A GROUP ALONG A HIERARCHY BY VIRTUE OF THEIR INCLUSION IN A PREDEFINED CATEGORY --- [3] UNEQUAL TREATMENT OF OTHERS IS JUSTIFIED ON THE GROUND OF (“IMPUTED”) INNATE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN RACES.

RACISM AS CULTURE (“RACISM WITHOUT RACE”)=======> IN RECENT YEARS ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT BIOLOGICAL INFERIORITY HAVE BEEN CRITIQUED AND SHIFTED TO ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT CULTURAL INFERIORITY --- [1] MINORITIES ARE DENIED OR EXCLUDED BY RACIALIZING CULTURAL DIFFERENCES AS A BASIS OF DENIAL OR DISLIKE {EX: CITIZENSHIP, PATRIOTISM, AND HERITAGE} --- [2] PEOPLE OF ONE CULTURE ASSUME THEIR WAY OF DOING THINGS IS NORMAL AND NECESSARY, TOGETHER WITH THE POWER TO IMPOSE THESE BELIEFS AND PRACTICES ON OTHERS --- [3] RACIST DISCOURSES ARE AIMED AT CRITICIZING THE CULTURAL “OTHER” WHEN DIFFERENCES ARE SEEN AS BEYOND THE PALE OF INTEGRATION {EX: MIGRANTS AS SOURCE SOCIETY'S SOCIAL ILLS}

RACISM AS POWER (RACISM AS “RACIALIZATION”) ========> [1] RACISM AS A NETWORK OF POWER RELATIONS {SITUTATED WITHIN SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS AND THE INSTITUTIONAL STRUCTURES OF SOCIETY THAT UNINTENTIONALLY ADVANTAGE SOME, DISADVANTAGE OTHERS} --- [2] SOME GROUPS HAVE THE POWER TO ATTACH SOCIAL SIGNIFICANCE TO, DRAW BOUNDARIES AROUND, AND TAKE ADVANTAGE OF OTHERS BECAUSE OF PERCEIVED INFERIORITY {EX: RACIALIZATION OF BLACK CRIME} --- [3] RACISM AS POWER ENTAILS THE CAPACITY FOR SOME TO ESTABLISH AGENDAS REGARDING WHAT IS NORMAL, NECESSARY, DESIRABLE, OR ACCEPTABLE, THUS REINFORCING THE SUPERIORITY OF ONE GROUP OVER ANOTHER {EX: “THE HEGEMONIC ORDER OF WHITENESS” IS ISTITUTIONALIZED WITHIN THE STRUCTURES, VALUES, AND INSTITUTIONS OF SOCIETY.}

(B) FORMS OF RACISM

RACISM - IS THE DENIAL OF EQUAL TREATMENT OR ACCESS TO VALUED RESOURCES ON THE BASIS OF RACE.

MOST PEOPLE TEND TO THINK OF RACISM ONLY IN TERMS OF AN "OVERT ACT" OF INTOLERANCE AGAINST PEOPLE OR PROPERTY, LIKE A "HATE CRIME" -- EX: ANTI-SEMITIC OR ANTI-BLACK BEHAVIOR.

BUT, SOCIOLOGISTS HAVE FOUND THAT RACISM OPERATES IN MANY FORMS, AND AT COVERT AND OVERT LEVELS:

(A) EXPRESSIONS CAN BE WILFUL, DELIBERATE, CONSCIOUS, OR THEY CAN BE INDIRECT, UNINTENTIONAL, AND UNCONSCIOUS.

(B) THESE EXPRESSIONS ARE REFLECTED IN INDIVIDUAL ATTITUDES AND BELIEF SYSTEMS AND IN INSTITUTIONAL AND SOCIETAL POLICIES AND REGULATIONS.

SOCIOLOGIST SPEAK OF THESE DIFFERENT FORMS OF RACISM AS:

(1) INDIVIDUAL RACISM: IS A FORM OF RACIAL DISCRIMINATION THAT STEMS FROM CONSCIOUS, PERSONAL PREJUDICE. (EX: SLURS, DEROGATORY

(2) EVERYDAY RACISM -- INVOLVES THE MANY AND SOMETIMES SMALL WAYS IN WHICH RACISM IS EXPERIENCED BY PEOPLES OF COLOUR IN THEIR INTERACTIONS WITH THE DOMINANT WHITE GROUP. (EX: GLANCES, GESTURES, FORMS OF SPEECH AND PHYSICAL MOVEMENTS).

(3) CULTURAL RACISM -- MEANING BASICALLY THAT WE CAN CONCEIVE OF DISCRIMINATION ON THE BASIS OF ONE'S CULTURAL IDEAS, NORMS, VALUES AND MORAES.

(4) SYSTEMIC RACISM:

(A) INSTITUTIONAL -- IS MADE UP OF THE RULES, PROCEDURES,AND PRACTICES THAT DELIBERATELY PREVENT MINORITIES FORM HAVING FULL AND EQUAL INVOLVEMENT IN SOCIETY.

(B) STRUCTURAL -- INEQUALITIES ROOTED IN THE SYSTEM-WIDE OPERATION OF A SOCIETY THAT EXCLUDE SUBSTANTIAL NUMBERS OF MEMBERS OF PARTICULAR GROUPS FROM SIGNIFICANT PARTICIPATION IN MAJOR SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS.

IMPORTANT SOCIOLOGICAL CAVEAT: SINCE THE DOMINANT WHITE SOCIETY IN CANADA TEND TO SEE RACISM AS AN INDIVIDUAL PHENOMENON, STEMMING FROM PERSONAL PREJUDICE, AND EXPRESSED ACTS OF INTOLERANCE =====> THERE IS AN ASSUMPTION THAT RACISM IS THE RESULT OF IGNORANCE OR MALEVOLENCE ON THE PART OF INDIVIDUALS, AND THAT EDUCATION IS ALL THAT IS REQUIRED FOR AMIELIORATION ======> MANY SOCIOLOGISTS SUGGEST THAT THE ANALYSIS OF RACISM THAT IS INHERENT IN THESE EFFORTS AND PRACTICES {EG. FOCUS ON MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION AND INCREASING INTERCULTURAL CONTACTS} ARE DOOMED TO BE OF LIMITED VALUE AND SUCCESS, AND CONTRIBUTES TO FURTHER “MYSTIFICATION” OF SYSTEMIC RACISM =======> MOREOVER, IT IS NOTHING MORE THAN THE ATTEMPT TO “GIVE THE APPEARANCE OF CHANGE WITHOUT CHANGING THE STATUS QUO” (BOLARIA AND LI 1985:29).