REVIEW – OCTOBER 06

RACIALIZATION, DISCRIMINATION AND THE LAW

AS/SOSCI 4440 6.0

{SYNOPSIS AND GENERAL OVERVIEW: THIS SECTION OF THE COURSE HAS BEEN DIVIDED INTO FOUR SUBJECT AREAS: (1) THE NATURE OF SOCIAL INEQUALITY [DOMINANT-SUBDOMINANT INTERACTION], (2) THE RACIALIZATION PROCESS [HOW CERTAIN IDEAS BECOME LINKED WITH “RACE”], AND (3) ETHNICITY AND RACE AND DEBATES OVER “WHITENESS” {AS AN ETHNICITY}, AND (4) THE SOCIOLOGY OF RACISM

{THE SOCIOLOGICAL KEY === IN THIS FIRST SECTION OF THE COURSE WE LEARNED ABOUT THE CHARACTERISTICS AND DYNAMICS OF ETHNICITY AND RACE AND THEIR RELATION TO DISCRIMINATION IN SOCIETY.

PART I --- SOCIAL INEQUALITY

(A) WHAT IS SOCIAL INEQUALITY?

ALL SOCIOLOGISTS AGREE – SOCIAL INEQUALITY IS STRUCTURED (PATTERNED AND PREDICTABLE) AND MANIFESTED IN STRATIFICATION SYSTEM(S) BASED ON A HIERARCHY OF PROPERTY, POWER AND PRESTIGE THAT COALESCE AROUND CONSEQUENTIAL SOCIAL DIFFERENCES – CLASS, GENDER, RACE AND ETHNICITY.

(B) WHAT DOES AGREEMENT IMPLY?

SOCIAL INEQUALITY - IS STRUCTURED AND RECURRENT PATTERNS OF INEQUITABLE GROUP RELATIONS [*****DOMINANT-SUBDOMINANT INTERACTION].

SOCIAL INEQUALITY - IS CHARACTERIZED BY THE EXISTENCE OF UNEQUAL OPPORTUNITIES AND REWARDS FOR DIFFERENT SOCIAL POSITIONS OR STATUSES WITHIN A GROUP OR SOCIETY.

FOR SOCIAL SCIENCE, SOCIAL INEQUALITY IS A PHENOMENON THAT REFLECTS PATTERNS OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION BY WHICH SOCIETY IS DIVIDED INTO UNEQUAL “STRATA” ALONG THE LINES OF CLASS, GENDER, RACE AND ETHNICITY.

INDIVIDUALS STUDYING SOCIAL INEQUALITY ARE ATTEMPTING TO ANSWER THE QUESTIONS OF WHO GETS WHAT? AND WHY? IMBEDDED IN THESE TWO QUESTIONS ARE MANY MORE ISSUES, SUCH AS THE FOLLOWING: WHAT KIND OF DISTRIBUTION DOES THE GENERAL PUBLIC VIEW AS FAIR? DO SOME INDIVIDUALS FACE OBSTACLES IN ATTAINING SOCIAL REWARDS THAT OTHERS DO NOT FACE? ARE ADVANTAGES AND/OR DISADVANTAGES INCURRED BY DIFFERENT CATEGORIES OF PEOPLE IN ATTAINING SOCIAL REWARDS?

C) WHAT ARE THE CAUSES OF SOCIAL INEQUALITY?

1. BIOLOGY =====> GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS/ EVOLUTIONARY ADAPTIONS/ DEFECTIVE GENES.

2. PSYCHOLOGY ======> PSYCHOLOGICAL ATTRIBUTES / WEAK MORAL FIBRE / WORK AND ACHIEVEMENT ETHIC.

3. CULTURE ======> SOCIALIZING FACTORS OF CULTURE (DEPREVATION) LEAD TO SELF-FULFILLING PROPHECY AND PERPETUATION OF POVERTY “NORMS” FROM GENERATION TO GENERATION.

4. STRUCTURAL ======> (REFERS TO THOSE ASPECTS OF SOCIETY THAT INVOLVE A PATTERNED AND RECURRENT SET OF RULES, ROLES, AND RELATIONS) SOCIAL CONTEXTS/ BARRIERS THAT LIMIT AND CONSTRAIN – CONSTRUCTED AROUND RULING CLASS/ ELITE PRIORITIES – ACTS AS FORMS OF DOMINATION, EXPLOITATION, AND EXCLUSION.

(D) WHAT IS AN EXAMPLE OF SOCIAL INEQUALITY?

CH. 2 – SOCIAL ISSUES AND CONTRADITIONS IN CANADIAN SOCIETY “WORK AND UNEMPLOYMENT AS SOCIAL ISSUES” {DICKINSON}=====> OVERVIEW OF (A) OUTLINE OF THE LABOUR PROCESS THEORY {HOW SOCIETY SOLVES THE PROBLEM OF THE PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION OF GOODS AND SERVICES};(B) THE RISE TO DOMINANCE OF THE CAPITALIST MODE OF PRODUCTION; (C) THE WAYS IN WHICH THE TRANSFORMATION OF WORK RESULTS IN CHANGES TO TH STRUCTURE OF THE ECONOMY, AND THE NATURE OF BOTH EMPLOYMENT AND UNEMPLOYMENT {PURSUIT OF EMPLOYER INTERESTS, SUCH AS THE GROWTH OF PART-TIME WORK AND THE REDUCTION IN AVERAGE INCOMES ESPECIALLY AMONG CERTAIN SEGMENTS OF THE POPULATION}; AND (D) THE SOLUTION TO UNEMPLOYMENT IN THE POLITICAL REALM AND THE REORGANIZATION OF THE SOCIAL RELATIONS OF WORK ========> THESIS AND THEMES: (A) THE STIGMA OF UNEMPLOYMENT AS CULTURAL BIAS {DISCOURSES ON “SHOP-TALK AND “CONSUMING”}; (B) CHANGING EMPLOYMENT PATTERNS {ATTEMPTS TO DESKILL WORK, DISEMPOWER WORKERS, AND DEVALUE LABOUR POWER; DECLINE OF THE “GOODS-PRODUCING” SECTOR AND THE INCREASE IN THE “SERVICE-PRODUCING” SECTOR}; (C)UNEMPLOYMENT AS A SOCIAL ISSUE {EG. TECHNOLOGICALLY-BASED CHANGES TO THE PRODUCTION PROCESS -- “STREAMLINING” AND “DOWNSIZING” AND “AMALGAMATING” AND “DELAYERING”}; AND (D) THE MARGINALIZATION OF WORK {INCREASED FEMALE LABOUR-FORCE PARTICIPATION; THE EXPANSION OF PART-TIME WORK AND THE DOWNWARD PRESSURE ON WAGES, BENEFITS AND JOB SECURITY}.

PART II --- THE RACIALIZATION PROCESS

1) MARGINALIZATION, RACIALIZATION AND STIGMATIZATON

{BLACK-FOCUSED SCHOOLS EXERCISE--- CULTURAL PROCESSES AND DYNAMICS RELATED TO ETHNOCENTRISM // STIGMATIZATION {I.E., WE USE CULTURE TO NEGOTIATE THE WORLD AS BOTH THE SOURCE AND RESOLUTION OF SOCIAL PROBLEMS}.

MARGINALIZATION: REFERS TO THE STATUS OF A GROUP WHO DOES NOT HAVE FULL AND EQUAL ACCESS TO THE SOCIAL ECONOMIC, CULTURAL, AND POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS OF SOCIETY. ========è

RACIALIZATION - REFERS TO THE ASSIGNING OF RACIAL CONNOTATIONS TO THE ACTIVITIES OF MINORITY PEOPLE =======è

STIGMATIZATION: REFERS TO A MARK OF DISGRACE IMPOSED ON AN INDIVIDUAL BY OTHER INDIVIDUALS OR A SOCIAL GROUP. IN POPULAR USAGE IT OFTEN REFERS TO ANY NEGATIVE SANCTION OR DISAPPROVAL FOR NONCONFORMITY. AN UNDESIRABLE DIFFERENTNESS OF AN INDIVIDUAL THAT DISQUALIFIES HIM OR HER FROM FULL SOCIAL ACCEPTANCE. SOCIOLOGISTS ORIGINALLY USED THE TERM TO SHOW HOW HUMANS NOT ONLY SEEK TO CONTROL THE PHYSICAL WORLD BUT THE SOCIAL WORLD.

[[[SOCIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS: THE PROCESS OF MARGINALIZATION-RACIALIZATION-STIGMATIZATION {EX: “RACIAL PROFILING”} IS A FORM OF “OTHERING” THAT ESTABLISHES WHITENESS AS NORMAL NATURAL AND NEUTRAL AND {POSITIVE POLE} == THE UNSPOKEN AND INVISIBLE STANDARD BY WHICH ALL ELSE IS JUDGED == “OTHERING" PEOPLE - MAKING PEOPLE INTO THE "NOT-US" {NEGATIVE POLE} - WHEN THEY ARE NOT-US THEY LACK SOMETHING -- WHEN THEY LACK SOMETHING THEN THEY ARE "LESS THAN US".]]]

PART III – ETHNICITY AND RACE AND “WHITENESS”

DEBATES OVER “WHITENESS” AS AND ETHNICITY

THE DEBATE SUGGESTS ON THE ONE SIDE THAT MAINSTREAM WHITES DO NOT HAVE AN ETHNICITY, AND ON THE OTHER THAT THEY DO. WHAT IS THE LOGIC PRESENTED ON BOTH SIDES

ENGLISH-SPEAKING CANADIANS OF EUROPEAN DESCENT ARE RELUCTANT TO DEFINE THEMSELVES AS AN ETHNICITY, PREFERRING INSTEAD, TO CONCEAL THERE “ETHNIC-NESS BY ATTRIBUTING ETHNICITY ONLY TO “MINORITIES” WHILE IMPLYING “WHITENESS” AS THE TACITLY ACCEPTED NORM AROUND WHICH “OTHER” ETHNIITIES ORBIT.[PP. 84]

DEBATES OVER WHITENESS AS AN ETHNICITY ARE INCREASINGLY POLARIZED. TO ONE SIDE ARE THOSE WHO ARGUE THAT MAINSTREAM WHITES DO NOT HAVE ETHNICITY === LOGIC OF ARGUMENT: {1} (BECAUSE) MOST ARE UNAWARE OF THEIR SHARED INDENTITY AS A CONSCIOUS DISTINCTION. THEY JUST ARE, AND LABELLING THEM AS ETHNIC IS INCONSISTENT WITH COMMONLY ACCEPTED DEFINITIONS OF ETHNICITY AS SHARED AWARENESS OF GROUP BELONGING, COMMON ANCESTRY, CULTURE, AND IDENTITY.

TO THE OTHER SIDE ARE THOSE WHO CONTEND THAT EVERYBODY INCLUDING WHITES IS ETHNICALLY LOCATED WHETHER AWARE OF IT OR NOT =====> LOGIC OF LATTER ARGUMENT: ALL POSITIONS IN SOCIETY ARE SITUATED; THERE IS NO POSITION FROM NO-WHERE =====>HEREIN LIES THE “GENIUS” OF WHITE PRIVILEGE: {1}WHITENESS IS EVERTHING BECAUSE IT IS PEREIVED BY WHITES TO BE NOTHING IN PARTICULAR. {2} AT THE SAME TIME, WHITENESS IS NOTHING BECAUSE OF ITS TENDENCY TOWARD THE NORMATIVE IN COLONIZING THE DEFINITION OF NORMAILTY =====> TO EXCLUDE WHITENESS AS AN UNMARKED RACE CATEGORY THAT STANDS OUTSIDE HISTORY OR CONVENTION IS TO REDOUBLE ITS HEGEMONY BY NATURALIZING IT =====> THE CAPACITY TO BE EVERYTHING AND NOTHING (AND VISA VERSA) MAKES IT DOUBLY IMPORTANT TO FOSTER AWARENESS OF WHITENESS AS IF IT WERE A “RACE” IN ALIGNMENT WITH OTHER “RACES” -- IE., MAKE ITS INVISIBILITY VISIBLE {2005: 36}.

CANADA'S MULTICULTURAL SOCIETY WILL FLOURISH ONLY WHEN WHITES ACKNOWLEDGE, THEY TOO ARE PART OF THE MOSAIC RATHER THAN THE GROUT THAT KEEPS EVERYONE IN PLACE.

PART IV-- THE SOCIOLOGY OF RACISM

(A) DEFINITIONS OF RACISM

RACISM IS MULTIDIMENTIONAL AND USUALLY SORTS ITSELF OUT IN SEVERAL [INTERRELATED] CATEGORIES OF DEFINITIONS: RACISM AS BIOLOGY, AS IDEOLOGY, AS CULTURE, AND AS POWER ====>

RACISM AS BIOLOGY (“RACISM AS RACE”) =====> [1] THE BELIEF THAT PEOPLE'S BEHAVIOR IS DETERMINED BY GENES OR BIOLOGY {EX: BLACKS AS NATURALLY-BORN ATHLETS, JAPANESS AS NATURALLY-GIFTED SCIENTISTS; ARABS AS FANATICS, ETC} --- [2] THE USE OF RACE AS A BASIS FOR ENTITLEMENT OR EVALUATION OF OTHERS {EX: TO EXCLUDE OTHERS BECAUSE OF SKIN COLOUR IS RACIST; TO INCLUDE OTHERS ON SIMILAR GROUNDS IS NO LESS RACIST --- [3] RACISM AS BIOLOGY REFERS TO THE PROCESS OF ATTACHING AN EVALUATIVE AND MORAL QUALITY TO PERCEIVED BIOLOGICALLY DIFFERENCES.

RACISM AS IDEOLOGY ======> [1] TRANSFORMS RACE-BASED DIFFERENCES INTO A HIERARCHY THAT JUSTIFIES THE DOMINANCE OF ONE GROUP OVER ANOTHER --- [2] A RELATIVELY COHESIVE SET OF BELIEFS (“IDEOLOGY”) AND PRACTICES IS IMPOSED THAT LABELS, CLASSIFIES, EVALUATES, AND RANKS MEMBERS OF A GROUP ALONG A HIERARCHY BY VIRTUE OF THEIR INCLUSION IN A PREDEFINED CATEGORY --- [3] UNEQUAL TREATMENT OF OTHERS IS JUSTIFIED ON THE GROUND OF (“IMPUTED”) INNATE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN RACES.

RACISM AS CULTURE (“RACISM WITHOUT RACE”)=======> IN RECENT YEARS ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT BIOLOGICAL INFERIORITY HAVE BEEN CRITIQUED AND SHIFTED TO ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT CULTURAL INFERIORITY --- [1] MINORITIES ARE DENIED OR EXCLUDED BY RACIALIZING CULTURAL DIFFERENCES AS A BASIS OF DENIAL OR DISLIKE {EX: CITIZENSHIP, PATRIOTISM, AND HERITAGE} --- [2] PEOPLE OF ONE CULTURE ASSUME THEIR WAY OF DOING THINGS IS NORMAL AND NECESSARY, TOGETHER WITH THE POWER TO IMPOSE THESE BELIEFS AND PRACTICES ON OTHERS --- [3] RACIST DISCOURSES ARE AIMED AT CRITICIZING THE CULTURAL “OTHER” WHEN DIFFERENCES ARE SEEN AS BEYOND THE PALE OF INTEGRATION {EX: MIGRANTS AS SOURCE SOCIETY'S SOCIAL ILLS}

RACISM AS POWER (RACISM AS “RACIALIZATION”) ========> [1] RACISM AS A NETWORK OF POWER RELATIONS {SITUTATED WITHIN SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS AND THE INSTITUTIONAL STRUCTURES OF SOCIETY THAT UNINTENTIONALLY ADVANTAGE SOME, DISADVANTAGE OTHERS} --- [2] SOME GROUPS HAVE THE POWER TO ATTACH SOCIAL SIGNIFICANCE TO, DRAW BOUNDARIES AROUND, AND TAKE ADVANTAGE OF OTHERS BECAUSE OF PERCEIVED INFERIORITY {EX: RACIALIZATION OF BLACK CRIME} --- [3] RACISM AS POWER ENTAILS THE CAPACITY FOR SOME TO ESTABLISH AGENDAS REGARDING WHAT IS NORMAL, NECESSARY, DESIRABLE, OR ACCEPTABLE, THUS REINFORCING THE SUPERIORITY OF ONE GROUP OVER ANOTHER {EX: “THE HEGEMONIC ORDER OF WHITENESS” IS ISTITUTIONALIZED WITHIN THE STRUCTURES, VALUES, AND INSTITUTIONS OF SOCIETY.}

(B) FORMS OF RACISM

RACISM - IS THE DENIAL OF EQUAL TREATMENT OR ACCESS TO VALUED RESOURCES ON THE BASIS OF RACE.

MOST PEOPLE TEND TO THINK OF RACISM ONLY IN TERMS OF AN "OVERT ACT" OF INTOLERANCE AGAINST PEOPLE OR PROPERTY, LIKE A "HATE CRIME" -- EX: ANTI-SEMITIC OR ANTI-BLACK BEHAVIOR.

BUT, SOCIOLOGISTS HAVE FOUND THAT RACISM OPERATES IN MANY FORMS, AND AT COVERT AND OVERT LEVELS:

(A) EXPRESSIONS CAN BE WILFUL, DELIBERATE, CONSCIOUS, OR THEY CAN BE INDIRECT, UNINTENTIONAL, AND UNCONSCIOUS.

(B) THESE EXPRESSIONS ARE REFLECTED IN INDIVIDUAL ATTITUDES AND BELIEF SYSTEMS AND IN INSTITUTIONAL AND SOCIETAL POLICIES AND REGULATIONS.

SOCIOLOGIST SPEAK OF THESE DIFFERENT FORMS OF RACISM AS:

(1) INDIVIDUAL RACISM: IS A FORM OF RACIAL DISCRIMINATION THAT STEMS FROM CONSCIOUS, PERSONAL PREJUDICE. (EX: SLURS, DEROGATORY

(2) EVERYDAY RACISM -- INVOLVES THE MANY AND SOMETIMES SMALL WAYS IN WHICH RACISM IS EXPERIENCED BY PEOPLES OF COLOUR IN THEIR INTERACTIONS WITH THE DOMINANT WHITE GROUP. (EX: GLANCES, GESTURES, FORMS OF SPEECH AND PHYSICAL MOVEMENTS).

(3) CULTURAL RACISM -- MEANING BASICALLY THAT WE CAN CONCEIVE OF DISCRIMINATION ON THE BASIS OF ONE'S CULTURAL IDEAS, NORMS, VALUES AND MORAES.

(4) SYSTEMIC RACISM:

(A) INSTITUTIONAL -- IS MADE UP OF THE RULES, PROCEDURES,AND PRACTICES THAT DELIBERATELY PREVENT MINORITIES FORM HAVING FULL AND EQUAL INVOLVEMENT IN SOCIETY.

(B) STRUCTURAL -- INEQUALITIES ROOTED IN THE SYSTEM-WIDE OPERATION OF A SOCIETY THAT EXCLUDE SUBSTANTIAL NUMBERS OF MEMBERS OF PARTICULAR GROUPS FROM SIGNIFICANT PARTICIPATION IN MAJOR SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS.

IMPORTANT SOCIOLOGICAL CAVEAT: SINCE THE DOMINANT WHITE SOCIETY IN CANADA TEND TO SEE RACISM AS AN INDIVIDUAL PHENOMENON, STEMMING FROM PERSONAL PREJUDICE, AND EXPRESSED ACTS OF INTOLERANCE =====> THERE IS AN ASSUMPTION THAT RACISM IS THE RESULT OF IGNORANCE OR MALEVOLENCE ON THE PART OF INDIVIDUALS, AND THAT EDUCATION IS ALL THAT IS REQUIRED FOR AMIELIORATION ======> MANY SOCIOLOGISTS SUGGEST THAT THE ANALYSIS OF RACISM THAT IS INHERENT IN THESE EFFORTS AND PRACTICES {EG. FOCUS ON MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION AND INCREASING INTERCULTURAL CONTACTS} ARE DOOMED TO BE OF LIMITED VALUE AND SUCCESS, AND CONTRIBUTES TO FURTHER “MYSTIFICATION” OF SYSTEMIC RACISM =======> MOREOVER, IT IS NOTHING MORE THAN THE ATTEMPT TO “GIVE THE APPEARANCE OF CHANGE WITHOUT CHANGING THE STATUS QUO” (BOLARIA AND LI 1985:29).

C) WHAT IS COVERT NEO-RACISM?

CH. 3 – SOCIAL ISSUES AND CONTRADITIONS IN CANADIAN SOCIETY “CAPITAL ACCUMULTAION AND STATE FORMATION: THE CONTRADICTIONS OF INTERNATION MIGRATION” {SATZEWICH} =======> OVERVIEW OF (A) THE CONFLICTING INTERESTS OF INDUSTRIAL SOCIETIES (i) TO MAXIMIZE THE LABOUR SUPPLY AND (ii) TO PROTECT CULTURAL INTEGRITY {MIGRATION AS AN ASPECT OF “CAPTIAL ACCUMULATION”} AND MIGRATION AS AN ASPECT OF “STATE FORMATION”; (B) THE LINKS BETWEEN THE PROCESS OF MIGRATION AND THE CAPITALIST MODE OF PRODUCTION; (C) POTENTIAL SOCIAL AND ACCUMULATION PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH “POPULATION AGING” AND “DECLINING FERTILIZATION;” AND (D) THE LINKS BETWEEN RACISM AND THE IMMIGRATION SELECTION PROCESS{CLOAKED RACIAL SELECTIVITY UNDER THE FACADE OF MORE POLITICALLY ACCEPTABLE CRITERIA} =======> THESIS AND THEMES: (A) THE “DERACIALIZATION”{THE PROCESS IN WHICH EXPLICITLY RACIST TERMS AND CONCEPTS ARE REPLACED WITH APPARENTLY NON-RACIST ONES, BUT WITH THE MEANINGS REMAINING IN TACKED}, AND THE “NEO-RACISM”{THE CLOAKING OF RACISM UNDER THE FACADE OF MORE POLITICALLY ACCEPTABLE CRITERIA}OF IMMIGRATION; (B) THE MARGINALIZATION OF IMMIGRANTS AS A SOURCE OF CHEAP LABOUR; (C) THE CANADIAN IMAGINED COMMUNITY (WHITE SETTLER SOCIETY AND THE RESISTANCE TO OPENNESS).