REVIEW –
FEBRUARY 08
ORGANIZATIONAL
PRACTICE AND THE STATE
{SYNOPSIS AND
GENERAL OVERVIEW: THIS SECTION OF THE COURSE HAS
BEEN DIVIDED INTO FOUR SUBJECT AREAS: (1) THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF
DISCRIMINATION (2) FAMILY PROBLEMS IN POSTMODERN SOCIETY (3) EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITY
AND EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT AND
SOCIO-ECONOMIC OUTCOMES (4) GENDER PARADOXES, PAY EQUITY AND
THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF CHILDCARE
{*THE
SOCIOLOGICAL KEY ====> IN THIS SECTION OF THE COURSE WE
LEARNED ABOUT THE RACIALIZATION AND GENDERIZATION OF POLITCAL ECONOMY, AND [SOME] CONTEMPORARY ATTEMPTS TO
INTERVENE IN THE STATUS QUO}
PART I – THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF DISCRIMINATION
QUESTION:
WHAT IS THE MOST DESTRUCTIVE SOCIAL PROCESS OF CONTEMPORARY SOCIETY? THE SOCIAL PROCESS FROM ETHNOCENTRISM TO STEREOTPYING TO PREJUDICE
TO DISCRIMINATION.
ETHNOCENTRISM IS THE BELIEF THAT ONE'S OWN CULTURE IS BETTER THAN OTHERS AND/OR THE TENDENCY TO BELIEVE THAT WHAT IS TRUE OF YOUR CULTURE IS TRUE OF OTHERS.
STEREOTYPE IS A SET OF BIASED GENERALIZATIONS ABOUT A
GROUP OR CATEGORY OF PEOPLE THAT IS UNFAVORABLE, EXAGGERATED OR OVER-SIMPLIFIED.
PREJUDICE IS A NEGATIVE ATTITUDE BASED ON PRECONCEIVED
NOTIONS ABOUT MEMBERS OF A SELECT GROUP.
DISCRIMINATION IS DENIAL OF EQUAL TREATMENT OR
OPPORTUNITIES TO INDIVIDUALS ON THE BASIS OF MEMBERSHIP IN A PARTICULAR GROUP.
CAVEAT (WARNING,
PROVISO)
MOST SOCIAL
SCIENTIST AGREE THAT "ETHNOCENTRISM"
IS A "UNIVERSAL PHENOMENON", THAT EMERGES OUT OF THE SOCIAL
CONSTRUCTION OF GROUP IDENTITY (BOUNDARIES).
ETHNOCENTRISM PROVIDES
A SENSE OF COHESION, ESTEEM, RESPECT, DIGNITY, AND PRIDE. SO ETHNOCENTRISM IS THE BELIEF IN ONE'S OWN CULTURE, AND FUNCTIONS AS A SOURCE OF PRIDE AND TOGETHERNESS IN ORDER TO CREATE GROUP
BOUNDARIES
"BUT"
ETHNOCENTRISM OFTEN LEADS TO OTHER IMPORTANT SOCIOLOGICAL TOPICS -- SUCH AS
"STEREOTYPING" (OVER-GENERALIZED CARICATURES OF OTHERS) AND "PREJUDICE" (NEGATIVE ATTITUDES
BASED ON PRECONCEIVED NOTIONS) AND
"DISCRIMINATION" (HARMFUL PRACTICES).
ETHNOCENTRISM IS AN INCIPIENT
(EMBRYONIC) PROCESS IN THE FORMATION OF INDIVIDUAL AND
GROUP IDENTITY.
WE CAN THINK OF THE
MATTER THIS WAY: ETHNOCENTRISM IS A NECESSARY
BUT NOT SUFFICIENT CONDITION FOR STEREOTYPING; AND
STEREOTYPING IS A NECESSARY BUT NOT SUFFICIENT CONDITION FOR PREJUDICE; AND
PREJUDICE IS A NECESSARY BUT NOT SUFFICIENT CONDITION FOR DISCRIMINATION.
PART II – FAMILY PROBLEMS
QUESTION: WHAT AND
HOW ARE
FAMILIES PROBLEMATIZED IN CONTEMPORARY SOCIETY
SOCIAL PROBLEM – A
SOCIAL CONDITION OR FORM OF
CONDUCT LABELLED AS A PROBLEMATIC BY A POWERFUL GROUP
SOCIAL
CONSTRUCTIONISTS:
THE SOCIOLOGY OF
DEVIANCE TELL US THAT SOCIAL PROBLEMS ARE NOT DISCOVERED.
THAT IS, SOCIAL PROBLEMS ARE
SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIONS; THEY ARE MADE
NOT DISCOVERED =====> LIKE ANY OTHER SOCIAL PROCESS SOCIAL PROBLEMS ARE
GENERATED OUT OF THE INTERPLAY BETWEEN – CULTURE, POWER AND
IDEOLOGY =====> THIS MEANS THAT SOCIAL CONDITIONS {SAY, THE BLACK “SLUM”}
DOES NOT BECOME SOCIAL PROBLEMS UNTIL SOME {POWERFUL} GROUP MAKES THEM AN ISSUE
– THAT IS, TARGETS THEM, LABELS THEM DEVIANT, AND
ATTEMPTS TO PUT THEM ON THE SOCIAL AGENDA
THE STUDY OF
SOCIAL PROBLEMS IS THE STUDY OF THAT PROBLEMATIZING PROCESS
BY
CONCEPTUALIZING IT AS A PROCESS, WE RECOGNIZE THAT SOCIAL PROBLEMS IS AN
INTERACTION- OFTEN OF STRUGGLE-BETWEEN THE POWERFUL AND THE
POWERLESS OVER THOSE WHOSE WAYS ARE THE RIGHT
WAYS
MILLER ARGUES
THAT THE FAMILY PROBLEMS OF THIS CENTURY AND THE
LAST CAN BE UNDERSTOOD ONLY AGAINST THE BACKDROP OF THE EMERGENCE OF THE
BOURGEOIS FAMILY IDEAL: THE PATRIARCHAL CULT OF DOMESTICITY THAT HAD THE EFFECT
OF SANCTIFYING A SINGLE FAMILIAL ARRANGEMENT AS THE ONLY PROPER AND
RESPECTABLE ONE
THE CULT OF
DOMESTICITY
·
SOCIAL HISTORIANS AGREED THAT OVER THE 18TH AND 19TH
CENTURY IN NORTHERN EUROPE, THERE AROSE IN
THE BURGEONING MIDDLE CLASS, A CULT OF DOMESTICITY THAT MADE THE NEW FORM AN
OBJECT OF VENERATION.
·
UNTIL THE 18TH CENTURY, THE FAMILY EXISTED AS A
POLITICAL AND PUBLIC BODY,
WITH LITTLE OR NO PRIVATE CHARACTER.
·
TOWARDS THE END OF THE 18TH CENTURY, THE “DOMESTIC” OR
“INTIMATE” MODERN FORM OF
THE FAMILY EMERGED AND
BECAME THE NORMAL STANDARD OF
LIVING.
PREMODERN FAMILY
·
WAS THE PROBLEM, WHICH WAS SEEN AS A PARASITIC
INSTITUTIONAL FORM, WHOSE MEMBERS
WERE THOUGHT TO BE MAKING AN INSUFFICIENT CONTRIBUTION TO THE WELFARE OF
SOCIETY P. 135.
·
THIS FAMILY WAS LARGE AND
DIVERSE, INCLUDING HOUSEHOLD ENCOMPASSING SERVANTS AND KIN ETC.
·
MOST OF THE STATE’S REFORM POLICIES WERE NOT INTENDED
TO REPLACE THE FAMILY BUT TO IMPROVE IT -- EXAMPLE: THE BABY BONUS
THE BABY BONUS
·
BEGAN AS A STATE PAYMENT TO ANY MOTHER WHO WAS WILLING
TO RAISE ILLEGITIMATE CHILDREN IN HER OWN FAMILY, BECAME A MECHANISM WHICH
ALLOWED THE STATE TO OVERSEE THE PHYSICAL AND MORAL
HYGIENE OF THE BOURGEOISIE AND LATER
THE POOR, FAMILY BY MEASURING IT AGAINST THE STANDARD OF THE NEW IDEAL
P.135
·
THE ETHOS OF DOMESTICITY HAD ITS ORIGIN IN EUROPEAN
SOCIETIES, WHERE PRIVILEGE ACCORDED TO THE NEW
IDEAL, THAT WORKED TO PRODUCE A MORAL DISTINCTION BETWEEN THE RESPECTABLE
MIDDLE-CLASS FAMILY AND THE WORK-CLASS
FAMILY, WHO WERE SEEN AS DEFICIENT AND A
THREAT TO THE PUBLIC ORDER
POLICING THE
“UNFIT”FAMILY UNIT
THE “SLUM” FAMILY:
·
DURING THE YEARS OF RAPID IMMIGRATION BETWEEN 1860 AND THE
FIRST WORLD WAR, CRITICS RESERVED THE GREATEST CONCERN FOR THE URBAN SLUM
FAMILIES, WHERE THE THREAT TO THE CHILD WAS CONSIDERED THE GREATEST
·
MIDDLE-CLASS DEFINITION OF A SLUM FAMILY FOCUSED ON
THE “IDLE YOUTH” WHO WERE MARGINALLY EMPLOYED AS BOOTBLACKS AND
NEWSBOYS, NEITHER GOING TO SCHOOL OR WORK, JUST
ROAMING THE STREETS P. 137
·
SOLUTIONS TO THIS WOULD BECOME THE “PROBLEM OF
JUVENILE DELINQUENCY”, AND
INCLUDED SOME THINGS AS TRAINING SCHOOLS OR ORPHANAGES, THAT WERE SEEN TO
INSTALL THE CHILD INTO A BETTER HOME.
·
DURING THE LAST HALF OF THE 19TH CENTURY, CHILDREN’S
WAGES PROVIDED AN IMPORTANT PART OF FAMILY INCOME.
·
IN COMPARISON WITH THE MODERN FAMILY, GOOD PARENTING
CAME TO IMPLY THE COMPLETE SEGREGATION OF THE CHILD FROM THE ADULT WORLD OF
PAID LABOUR.
·
THERE WAS A GENERAL BELIEF THAT WORKING-CLASS GIRLS
SHOULD BE AT HOME, RATHER THEN AT DANCE HALLS OR THEATRES, FOR EXAMPLE
EXCURSUS {ASIDE
OR DIGRESSION}: THE TYRANNY OF THE EXPERTS
·
PRIOR TO THE RISE OF THE MODERN STATE, THE
LOCAL COMMUNITY AND
CHURCH WERE THE MAJOR AGENTS OF SOCIAL CONTROL
·
MECHANISMS OF CONTROL WERE LOCAL AND
INFORMAL, AND INCLUDED NOISY
PUBLIC DEMONSTRATIONS CALLED “SHIVAREES” WHICH WERE DESIGNED TO HUMILIATE THE
WRONGDOER INTO RIGHT CONDUCT P.138
·
THE RISE OF THE MODERN STATE
SIGNALLED THE WEAKENING OF COMMUNITY AUTHORITY AND THE
SOCIAL CONTROL OF THE FAMILY BECAME MORE STANDARDIZED AND
FORMAL
·
THE PROBLEM OF SLUM FAMILIES BECAME IN ITS ENTIRETY
THE PROPERTY OF THE NEW
(MALE) CHILD-CARE PROFESSIONALS
THE PROBLEM OF
THE EMPLOYED MOTHER
·
THE ETHOS OF DOMESTICITY ENTAILS A FIGURE OF THE
VULNERABLE CHILD TOGETHER WITH THE MOTHER WHO IS EXPECTED TO MAKE THE CHILD HER
FIRST CONCERN, ABOVE HERSELF
·
THE PROBLEM WITH WORKING MOTHERS IS THAT SHE SHOULD BE
MINDING HER CHILDREN, INSTEAD OF GOING OUT AND
WORKING, WHICH BECAME A CONCERN WITH THE ETHOS OF DOMESTICITY, WHEREBY THE ROLE
OF THE MOTHER SHOULD BECOME THE CENTRAL MISSION IN A WOMAN’S LIFE
·
THE WORKING MOTHER BECAME A FOCUS OF ANXIETY, AS
RECENT DEBATES IN CONNECTION WITH THE PUSH FOR MORE DAYCARE
·
TODAY, MOTHERS THEMSELVES CONTINUE TO SHOW
CONSIDERABLE AMBIVALENCE ABOUT THE APPROPRIATENESS OF THEIR OWN PAID WORK:
THEY, WORK, OR PLAN TO
WHILE INSIST THAT THEIR PROPER PLACE IS AT
HOME, “AT LEAST WHILE THE CHILDREN ARE
YOUNG” P.143
·
FOR THOSE WOMEN WHO WORK IN
THE LABOUR FORCE, MOTHERING IS CONSIDERED THEIR FIRST COMMITMENT OR PRIMARY “REAL” WORK
THE NEW
PROBLEM: THE LESBIAN FAMILY
·
PERHAPS THE MOST OBVIOUS CHALLENGES TO THE BOURGEOISIE
IDEAL OF THE HETEROSEXUAL, MALE DOMINATED FAMILY ARE THE
CONJUGAL FAMILIES OF THE 1960’S AND THE
ALTERNATIVE FAMILY FORMS OF THE 1980’S AND
1990’S, INCLUDING GAY AND
LESBIAN, AS WELL AS SINGLE HEADED
FAMILIES
·
ARNUP’S STUDY OF 5 COURTS CASES DEALING WITH LESBIAN
CUSTODY BEFORE 1984, SHOWED THAT COURT DECISIONS NEITHER REPRESSED NOR
TOLERATED LESBIAN FAMILIES AS SUCH, BUT DISTINGUISHED BETWEEN THE GOOD AND BAD
LESBIAN FAMILIES P.145
·
THIS STUDY SHOWED THE STATE’S ROLE IN CONTROLLING AT
LEAST THIS ALTERNATIVE FAMILY FORM, AS WELL AS
THE GOAL OF THE STATE’S EFFORTS
·
THE STATE IS NOT CONCERNED WITH LESBIAN FAMILIES PER SE,
BUT WITH THE WAY SUCH FAMILIES REPRESENT THEMSELVES PUBLICLY WITH REGARD TO THE
DOMESTIC STANDARD
·
IN COURT CASES, THE DETERMINING FACTOR IN A JUDGE’S
DECISION IS NOT WHAT THE MOTHER’S SEXUAL ORIENTATION IS, BUT RATHER WHAT SHE
DOES WITH IT
PROBLEMATIZING
THE HIDDEN INJUSTICES OF NORMAL
FAMILY LIFE
THE FEMINIZATION
OF POVERTY: WOMEN FACE HIGHER RISKS OF POVERTY THAN MEN, WHICH
IS CONSIDERED A SIGNIFICANT LONG-TERM TREND WHY?
BECAUSE THOSE WOMEN WHO REMAINED
HOUSEWIVES ALL THEIR ADULT
YEARS HAVE BEEN DISADVANTAGED MATERIALLY BY THEIR TOTAL ECONOMIC DEPENDENCE ON
THEIR HUSBAND, WHOSE SUPPORT MIGHT SUDDENLY DISAPPEAR THROUGH DIVORCE,
DESERTION OR DEATH P. 148
THE JOBS FOR WHICH WOMEN ARE HIRED
ARE OVERALL THE
WORST: THEY OFFER THE LOWEST PAY AND THE
FEWEST BENEFITS (GENDER SEGREGATION OF THE LABOUR FORCE)
CULTURAL ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT THE
NATURE OF FEMININITY ALSO PLAY A CRUCIAL ROLE BOTH IN THE CAUSES OF WOMEN’S
POVERTY AND IN ITS
INVISIBILITY AS A SOCIAL PROBLEM
FAMILY VIOLENCE
THE PROBLEM OF
FAMILY VIOLENCE:
·
FAMILY VIOLENCE IS NOW SEEN
AS VIOLENCE OF SEVERAL DIFFERENT KINDS- AGAINST WOMEN, CHILDREN, THE OLD, AND
AMONGST CHILDREN (SIBLINGS)
·
GREATER VISIBILITY IS CURRENTLY ATTACHED TO THE ABUSE
OF WOMEN AND CHILDREN THAN TO
SIBLING ABUSE AND THE ABUSE OF
OLDER FAMILY MEMBERS
·
DOMESTIC VIOLENCE IS SOMETIMES WOMAN-TO-MAN, BUT
MORE OFTEN WOMEN AND
CHILDREN ARE THE VICTIMS
·
A RECENT CANADIAN SURVEY INDICATED THAT 29% OF WOMEN
HAVE EXPERIENCE VIOLENCE AT THE HANDS OF THEIR CURRENT OR PREVIOUS MARITAL
PARTNER P. 150SOCIOLOGIST OF THE FAMILY WARN THAT PARENTAL HOMICIDE IS THE MOST
COMMON KILLER OF CHILDREN, PARENTS CONTINUE TO FEAR THE MANIAC IN THE
SCHOOLYARD FOR EXAMPLE
·
SOME VIOLENT ACTS ARE ALSO
NORMALIZED AND REINTERPRETED AS
ACCEPTABLE (EX. FIGHTS BETWEEN SIBLINGS)
SOCIAL CONTROL
·
ACCORDING TO MILLER, WHEN WE REASSIGN SEVERE OR
DEVIANT VIOLENCE TO OTHERS, WE EVADE THE RECOGNITION THAT OUR INTIMATES CAN
ALSO DO US HARM
P. 152
·
DESPITE ATTEMPTS TO DEMONSTRATE, “SCIENTIFICALLY” THAT
VIOLENCE IS DISTRIBUTED THROUGHOUT THE AMBIT OF HUMAN EXPERIENCE, THE VIOLENT
PERSON WHO IS ALSO AN INTIMATE IS NOT YET CULTURALLY DEFINED AS A CATEGORY OF
DEVIANT
·
THE TENDENCY TO MEDICALIZE FAMILY VIOLENCE BY
ATTRIBUTING IT TO PHYSICAL OR MENTAL ILLNESS WORSENS THE PROBLEM, BY BLINDING
US TO THE CULTURAL ROOTS OF THE WAY WE UNDERSTAND THE FAMILY AND THE
VIOLENCE WITHIN IT P. 152
CONCLUSION
·
THE INCREASE ATTENTION PAID TO SOCIAL CONTROL AND ITS
HISTORICAL EVOLUTION HAS LED
TO A RE-EVALUATION OF THE LINKAGE BETWEEN FAMILY AND STATE
·
FEMINIST SCHOLARS HAVE COME TO RECOGNIZE THAT THE
VARIOUS WAYS IN WHICH THE STATE ATTEMPTS TO SUPPRESS OR IMPROVE “PROBLEM
FAMILIES HAS GONE AGAINST THE
INTERESTS OF WOMEN”
·
ACCORDING TO LESLIE MILLER, STATE ENFORCEMENT OF THE
“DOMESTIC FAMILY” OFTEN ENTAILS DIRECT OR INDIRECT REPRESSION OF OTHER WORKABLE
ARRANGEMENTS, SUCH AS WOMEN WORKING OUTSIDE THE HOME
·
ON THE OTHER HAND,
HOWEVER, MANY FEMINISTS RECOGNIZE THAT WOMEN TODAY WELCOME STATE INTERVENTION
INTO THEIR HOMELIVES
·
THIS CHAPTER RAISES THE QUESTION OF WHETHER THE STATE,
GIVEN ITS SUBSERVIENCE TO THE INTERESTS OF CAPITAL (PATRIARCHY) CAN BE EXPECTED
TO ACT AGAINST THOSE INTERESTS BY TAKING THE SIDE OF
WOMEN IN THE FAMILY
·
AT THE PRESENT TIME, FAMILY THEORISTS HAVE BEGUN TO SEE THE
STATE AS AN ENVIRONMENT WITHIN WHICH FAMILY MEMBERS ARE SEEN
TO BE THE AGENTS OF THEIR OWN LIVES
PART III
– EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITY
QUESTION: WHAT
IS THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ACCESS TO EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES AND EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT, AND HOW DOES THE RELATIONSHIP CORRELATE TO
SOCIAL ECONOMIC BENEFITS?
LIBERAL PERSPECTIVES ON EDUCATION:
“MERITOCRACY” VS.
“STRUCTURED SOCIAL INEQUALITY”
LIBERAL PERSPECTIVES ON EDUCATION PORTRAYS IT AS A “MERITOCRACY”,
OR A VEHICLE FOR NURTURING THE TALENTS AND
CAPACITIES OF EACH INDIVIDUAL IN HARMONY WITH HIS OR HER ABILITY TO CONTRIBUTE
PRODUCTIVELY TO SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT === THEREFORE ===
[1] TO DENY OPPORTUNITY TO INDIVIDUALS OR GROUPS OF PEOPLE IS BOTH
MORALLY UNJUST AND
COUNTERPRODUCTIVE TO THE ADVANCEMENT OF SOCIETY, SINCE INDUSTRIAL SOCIETIES
CANNOT AFFORD TO ALLOW TALENT AND BRAINPOWER
TO GO TO WASTE === [2] THE LIBERAL ORIENTATION IS OFTEN
SUPPORTED WITH REFERENCE TO NOTIONS OF A MERITOCRACY IN WHICH SOCIAL AND
ECONOMIC REWARDS, SUCH AS PRESTIGE AND
WEALTH, ARE ALLOCATED TO INDIVIDUALS AS A INCENTIVE
TO MAINTAIN SKILLED AND
INDUSTRIOUS PERFORMANCE IN ORDER TO FULFIL THE MOST CRUCIAL SOCIAL TASKS
[MAZUREK, 1987; WOTHERSPOON 2000].
OPPOSITIONAL/OBSERVATIONAL CHALLENGES:
DESPITE THE APPEAL FOR FAIRNESS AND
JUSTICE IN LIBERAL CONCEPTIONS OF “EQUALITY OF OPPORTUNITY”,
AND WIDESPREAD PUBLIC SUPPORT FOR THE
SENTIMENT THAT EQUALITY OF OPPORTUNITY SHOULD BE A GUIDING PRINCIPLE IN THE
ORGANIZATION OF CANADIAN SCHOOLS, SEVERAL CHALLENGES TO THE NOTION HAVE BEEN
MOUNTED ====
BOTH THE RIGHT AND LEFT HAVE QUESTIONED THE
USEFULNESS OF EQUALITY OF OPPORTUNITY AS AN ORGANIZING PRINCIPLE IN
CAPTITALISTS SOCIETIES – {A} THE FORMER{ON RIGHT} BECAUSE GOVERNMENT
EFFORTS TO MAINTAIN THE RIGHTS OF MINORITY GROUPS ARE
SEEN AS TOO COSTLY TO MAINTAIN
AND CONTRARY TO THE PRINCIPLES OF
MARKET-DRIVEN EONOMIES, AND {B} THE LATTER {ON
LEFT} BECAUSE THE PROMISED OPPORTUNITIES HAVE NOT BEEN DELIVERED FOR
MANY PERSONS IN THE FORM OF
SUBSTANTIAL SOCIAL ADVANCEMENT.
[EMERGENCE OF CONTEMPORARY DEBATES OVER THE FUTURE OF
EDUCATION ======> ON ONE SIDE
ARE PROPONENTSOF A CONSERVATIVE VIEW THAT
SCHOOLS ARE FAILING TO TEACH
THE FUNDAMENTAL KNOWLEDGE AND
SKILLS REQUIRED IN A CORE AREA
OF ACADEMIC SUBJECTS, WHILE ON THE OTHER ARE
PARENTS AND EMPLOYERS WHO
DEMAND THAT SCHOOLING BE MADE MORE DIRECTLY RESPONSIVE TO LABOUR-FORCE
REQUIREMENTS.]
[SUSTAINED ANALYSIS OF WHAT SCHOOLS DO AND
WHY =====> EDUCATION SYSTEMS CANNOT BE AN EFFECTIVE PANACEA FOR SOCIAL AND
LABOUR-MARKET PROBLEMS =====> IN PRACTICE, FORMAL SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION IN
CAPITALIST SOCIETIES ARE DRIVEN BY TWO
CONTRADICTORY DYNAMICS [1] ONE IS
THE THRUST IN LIBERAL DEMOCRACIES TOWARD GREATER EQUALITY OF
OPPORTUNITY AND
PARTICIPATION IN EONOMIC AND
POLITIAL LIFE
FOR ALL
MEMBERS OF SOCIETY; [2] THE OTHER IS THE FUNDAMENTAL CONFLICT AND
STRUCTURED INEQUALITY UPON WHICH A CAPITALIST ECONOMY IS
BASED ======> SO, WHILE EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS ARE
SOCIAL DIVISIONS OF LABOUR GOVERNED BY RELATIONS OF DOMINATION, SUBORDINATION, AND
EXPLOITATION, SCHOOLS REMAIN PART OF A PUBLIC SPHERE OF SOCIAL LIFE
THAT IS OPEN TO SCRUTINY AND PARTICIPATION
BY A DIVERSE, OFTEN CONFLICTING, ARRAY OF SOCIAL GROUPS.]
CONCLUSIONS:
1)
THE PRODUCTION OF UNEQUAL SOCIAL OPPORTUNITIES HAS
BEEN A SYSTEMATIC, REGULAR FEATURE OF CANADA’S
EDUCATION SYSTEM THAT HAS SERVED TO
PERPETUATE THE INEQUALITIES EMBEDDED WITHIN CAPITALIST SOCIETY.
2)
WHAT IS AT ISSUE IN CONTEMPORARY DEMANDS FOR “QUALITY
EDUCATION,” “LIFELONG LEARNING,” “FLEXIBILITY,” “ACCOUNTABILITY,”
AND “COMPETITIVENESS” IS NOT
ALTRUISTIC CONCERN FOR THE LEARNER, BUT RATHER A DIRECT RESPONSE TO CAPITAL'S
DEMANDS FOR AN AFFORDABLE, PRODUCTIVE, AND
COMPLIANT WORK FORCE.
3)
EDUCATION REMAINS IMPORTANT BECAUSE IT PROVIDES
CREDENTIALS AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR SOCIAL
ADVANCEMENT, BUT IT ALSO MAINTAINS AND
LEGITIMIZES EXISTING SOCIAL INEQUALITIES.
4)
THESE INEQUALITIES ARE
LIKELY TO BE TRANSLATED INTO DIFFERENTIAL BENEFITS AND
OPPORTUNITIES IN EMPLOYMENT, INCOME, AND
OTHER AREAS BEYOND EDUCATION.
PART IV - GENDER PARADOXES PAY EQUITY & THE
POLITICAL ECONOMY OF CHILDCARE
A) GENDER PARADOXES AND
THE RISE OF CONTINGENT WORKER
THESIS: A FEMINIST POLITICAL ECONOMY OF THE LABOUR MARKET
{FOCUSING ON SPECIFIC FEATURE OF WOMEN'S LABOUR MARKET EXPERIENCES}
BY THE MID-1990S ONLY 33 PERCENT OF CANADIANS HELD NORMAL
JOBS {STANDARD EMPLOYMENT RELATIONSHIPS}; AND
THERE WAS A PREDOMINANCE OF PRECARIOUS FORMS OF NONSTANDARD WORK
THAT WAS PERSISTENLY GENDERED AND
RACIALIZED IN CHARACTER.
CONTINGENT WORK
INCLUDES THOSE FORMS OF EMPLOYMENT INVOLVING ATYPICAL EMPLOYMENT CONTRACTS,
LIMITED SOCIAL BENEFITS AND STATUTORY
ENTITLEMENTS, JOB INSECURITY, LOW
JOB TENURE, LOW
WAGES, AND HIGH RISKS OF ILL HEALTH
=====> VULNERABLE POPULATIONS SUCH AS YOUTH, WOMEN AND
IMMIGRANTS ARE OVERREPRSENTED IN CONTINGENT WORK.
CONTINGENCY WORK PRODUCED SEVERAL “GENDER
PARADOXES” ======> (1) CONTINGENCY WORK
CAN NO LONGER MEDIATE THE CONTRADICTION BETWEEN PRODUCTION AND
REPRODUCTION{AS MORE PEOPLE WORK TO SUSTAIN
THE HOUSEHOLD THE TIME DEVOTED TO SOCIAL REPRODUCTION DECLINES}; (2) THE
IMPORTANCE OF WOMEN'S LABOUR IN SOCIAL REPRODUCTION IS BECOMING MORE VISIBLE
{EVEN GARNERING ATTENTON FROM THE STATE --- DECLINING FERTILITY, CHILDCARE
POLICY, TAX ASSISTANCE FOR CHILD CARE
DEVELOMENT}; (3) CONTINGENCY NOT ONLY UNDERMINES THE STANDARD OF LIVING
FOR WORKING PEOPLE, BUT ALSO JEOPARDIZES THE ABILITY OF PEOPLE TO REAR
CHILDREN, CARE FOR LOVED ONES,
AND CONTRIBUTE TO THE SOCIAL GOOD; (4) EVEN
WITH WOMEN'S HIGH RATES OF LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION, THE STATE IS WITHDRAWING
FURTHER THE PUBLIC SUPPORTS NECESSARY TO REPRODUCE A HEALTHY WORKING
POPULATION.
SOLUTIONS: (1) CULTIVATE STATEGIES AROUND IMPROVED
CHILCARE, EDUCATION, AND HEALTHCARE, AS WELL
AS JUST IMMIGRATION POLICIES THAT ENABLE
WORKERS TO RESIST CONTINGENCY; (2)
NONSTANDARD, OR “FLEXIBLE” FORMS OF WORK
NEED NOT AMOUNT TO CONTINGENY WORK; RATHER,
CERTAIN FORMS COULD CONTRIBUTE TO THE REDISTRIBUTION AND
REDESIGN OF WORK AND
WORKPLACES {INSTITUTIONALIZE FORMS OF LABOUR REGULATION THAT LINK
PRODUCTION TO REPRODUCTION BY ELEVATING AND
INTEGRATING THE IMPORTANCE OF THE TRADITIONALLY GENDERED WORK}.
B) PAY EQUITY AND
EMPLOYMENT EQUITY {ASIDE}
A NUMBER OF STRATEGIES
HAVE BEEN IMPLEMENTED IN AN ATTEMPT TO ACHIEVE GREATER GENDER EQUALITY IN THE
LABOUR MARKET. SINCE THE 1980'S THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT, SOME PROVINCIAL
GOVERNMENTS, AND A NUMBER OF PRIVATE
COMPANIES HAVE IMPLEMENTED PAY EQUITY
AND EMPLOYMENT EQUITY POLICIES.
{*PRO-ACTIVE STATEGIES TO ACCOMMODATE DIFFERENCES}
1)
PAY
EQUITY ATTEMPTS TO RAISE THE VALUE OF THE WORK
TRADITIONALLY PERFORMED BY WOMEN.
PAY EQUITY IS SOMETIMES
CALLED COMPARABLE WORTH, AND
IT REFLECTS THE BELIEF THAT WAGES OUGHT TO REFLECT THE WORTH OF A JOB,
NOT THE GENDER OR RACE OF THE WORKER.
LEGISLATION:
REQUIRES THAT SPECIFIC KINDS OF JOBS BE EXAMINED FOR DETERMINING (A) SEX
SEGREGATION, AND (B) JOB
VALUE WITHIN WORKPLACES.
HOW CAN THE COMPARABLE
WORTH OF DIFFERENT JOBS BE DETERMINED(?)
ONE
WAY IS TO COMPARE THE ACTUAL WORK OF WOMEN'S AND MEN'S JOBS
AND SEE IF THERE IS A DISPARITY IN THE SALARIES
PAID FOR EACH. TO DO THIS, ANALYSTS BREAK A JOB
INTO COMPONENTS – SUCH AS THE EDUCATION, TRAINING, AND
SKILLS REQUIRED, THE EXTENT OF RESPONSIBILITY FOR OTHER'S WORK, AND WORK
CONDITIONS – AND THEN ALLOCATE
POINTS FOR EACH.
FOR PAY EQUITY TO EXIST,
MEN AND WOMEN IN OCCUPATIONS THAT RECEIVE
THE SAME NUMBER OF POINTS SHOULD BE
PAID THE SAME.
IN SHORT, PAY EQUITY PROMOTES THE PRINCIPLE OF EQUAL PAY FOR WORK OF EQUAL VALUE. {*EQUALITY OF
CONDITIONS}
2) EMPLOYMENT
EQUITY STRATEGIES FOCUS ON WAYS
TO MOVE WOMEN INTO HIGHER-PAYING JOBS
TRADITIONALLY HELD BY MEN – BY:
ELIMINATING THE BARRIERS TO AND THE EFFECTS OF DISCRIMINATION, TO FULLY OPEN THE COMPETITION FOR JOB OPPORTUNITIES TO
THOSE WHO HAVE BEEN EXCLUDED HISTORICALLY.
A) ELIMINATE SYSTEMIC
DISCRIMINATION.
B) REMEDY THE EFFECTS OF
PAST DISCRIMINATION.
C) ACHIEVE A REPRESENTATIVE
WORKFORCE.
THAT TARGET
GROUPS FOR EMPLOYMENT EQUITY {AND
“STATISTICAL EQUALITY” NOT MERELY “EQUAL TREATMENT”} ARE
VISIBLE
MINORITIES, PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES, ABORIGINAL PEOPLE AND
WOMEN.
IN COMPARISON TO PAY EQUITY, WHICH ADDRESSES WAGE ISSUES
ONLY, /// EMPLOYMENT EQUITY
COVERS A RANGE OF EMPLOYMENT ISSUES SUCH AS RECRUITMENT, SELECTION,
TRAINING, DEVELOPMENT, AND
PROMOTION.
C) {SOME} RESULTS AND
CONTRADITIONS OF PAY EQUITY
PAY EQUITY IS AN EXAMPLE OF HOW FEMINIST ACTIVISTS AND
OTHERS HAVE USED THE LAW TO TRANSFORM SOCIAL RELATIONS. IT HAS
SIGNIFICANTLY IMPROVED WAGES FOR MANY WOMEN IN A WAY
NO OTHER APPROACH HAS ACHIEVED. BUT THE
TRANSFOMATIVE PROCESS AND THE RESULTS ARE
CONTRADICTORY.
TRANSFORMATIVE RESULTS:
1) IT HAS
ENCOURAGED MANY WOMEN TO REASSESS THEIR WORK,
TO EXAMINE THE KINDS OF SKILL, EFFORT, RESPONSIILITIES, AND
WORKING CONDITIONS INVOLVED IN THEIR JOBS, AND
TO DEMAND RECOGNITION.
2) IT HAS
REFLECTED AND PROMOTED SOME POWER SHIFTS
WITHIN UNIONS AND WORKPLACES AND
WITHIN SOCIETY AS A WHOLE AS WOMEN’S WORK
WAS REGARDED IN A NEW AND
MORE VALUED WAY.
3) IT CHALLENGED SOME OLD HIERARCHIES IN
WORKPLACES AND UNIONS.
RESISTANCE:
1) DIFFERENCES IN WAGES
AMONG WOMEN HAVE INCREASED (ARMSTONG AND
CORNISH, 1997).
2) EMPLOYERS HAVE BECOME MUCH
MORE SKILLED AT USING
THE LAW TO RESIST.
3)
MORE AND MORE
THE “LIMITED” SUCCESSES OF SOME GROUPS IN WORKING TOWARDS PAY EQUITY IS DEFINED
AS A PROBLEM SOLVED – AND THERE ARE
DEMANDS TO MOVE ON TO “OTHER ISSUES.”
4)
WOMEN’S VICTORIES ARE
UNDERMINED BY NEW STATEGIES SUCH AS
CONTRACTING-OUT AND A REFUSAL TO FUND.
5)
{IN SOME CASES} THE FAILURE TO UNDERSTAND OR
PROMOTE PAT EQUITY HAS LED TO A REINFORCEMENT OF OLD HIERARCHIES AND
TO TOO MUCH FOCUS ON “LEGAL PROCESSES,
RATHER THAN STRATEGIES FOR CHANGE.”
CONCLUSIONS:
COMBINDED WITH A NEW {NEO-LIBERALISM} EMPHASIS ON MARKET
FORCES AND DEREGULATION, PAY EQUITY WAS
DIFFICULT TO IMPLEMENT IN THE FACE OF MOUNTING RESISTANCE =====> AT THE SAME
TIME, HOWEVER, SUCH LEGISLATION IS NOW OFTEN
THE ONLY PROTECTION WOMEN HAVE AGAINST THE PRESSURES OF EFFICENCY, WHICH ARE
DEFINED SOLELY IN TERMS OF PROFITS AND
MARKETS ====> ESPECIALLY IN SUCH TIME, ANY HUMAN RIGHTS LEGISLATION HAS
TO BE DEFENDED AND EXTENDED AS A COUNTER
TO MARKET FORCES.
D) THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF CHILDCARE
THESIS: THE CURRENT INTEREST IN FUNDING EARLY
CHILDHOOD DEVELOPMENT HAS HELPED TO CEMENT A TRIPLE-PRONGED
DISCOURSE AROUND CHILDCARE {DISCOURSES ON – CHILD DEVELOPMENT / INVESTMENT IN
HUMAN CAPITAL / INCREASE PARENTAL LABOUR FORCE PARTICATION}
THE
HISTORY OF THE ORGANIZED STRUGGLE FOR CHILDCARE IN CANADA HAS
BEEN A LONG ONE =====> THE ROLE OF
CHILDCARE HAS CHANGED FROM THE INITIATION OF
THE WOMEN'S MOVEMENT ---- ORIGINALLY IT WAS CONSIDERED TO HELP EQUAL RIGHTS
FOR WOMEN AND SUPPORTING
WOMEN'S NEEDS {SOCIAL JUSTICE PERSPECTIVE} ---- NOW
IT IS RECAST BY THE STATE AS A “THREE-PRONGED DISCOURSE” ON {1} SUPPORTING
HEATHY CHILD DEVELOPMENT, {2} INVESTING IN CHILDREN FOR FUTURE PAYOFF TO
SOCIETY, AND {3}AS AN INSTRUMENT FOR
INVOLVING THE LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION OF TWO PARENTS {EARLY CHILDHOOD
DEVELOPMENT}
THE CHILD CARE
STRUGGLE/ISSUE IN CANADA
IS MARKED BY ABANDONED ATTEMPTS AT CREATING A NATIONAL STRATEGY (WITHOUT MUCH
PUBLIC OUTCRY).
IN RECENT
YEARS, PRESCHOOL EDUCATIONAL HAS BEEN
DEFINED AS AN EARLY AND CRITICAL
CONTRIBUTION TO MEETING THE LIFE-LONG
LEARNING REQUIREMENTS ASSOCIATED WITH AN EMERGENT “KNOWLEDGE-BASED ECONOMY.”
====> COST-CONSCIOUS GOVERNMENTS PRESENT
EARL CHILDHOOD EDUCATION AS A MEANS OF REDUCING FUTURE COSTS GENRATED BY
UNEMPLOYMENT AND/OR CRIME =====> THE
DISCOURSE SURROUNDING CHILDCARE POLICY
CREATIVE
TRANSFORMATIONS --- TRANSFORMATIVE POLITICS --- TODAY INVOLVES MULTIPLE
ROUTES, RATHER THAN A SINGLE PATH =====>
AS PROVINCES MOVE IN DIFFERENT DIRECTIONS,
STRONG NETWORKS THAT CONNECT CHILDCARE ADVOCATES AND
THEIR ALLIES FROM THE LOCAL TO THE PROVINCIAL AND
NATIONAL LEVELS BECOME AN ESSENTIAL MEANS OF LEARNING FROM EXPERIENCE AND
OF DEVELOPING THE POLICY CAPACITY NECESSARY TO INFLUENCE SEVERAL LEVELS OF
GOVERNMENT AT ONCE.