Classics in the
History of Psychology
An internet resource developed by
Christopher D. Green
ISSN
1492-3173
(Return to Classics index)
James Gibson Hume (1897)
First published in
[Originally delivered before the Ontario Teachers'
Association,
Posted October 2001
It would be an interesting task to
trace the history of psychology
from its earliest crude and haphazard beginnings
to its present state of advancement with
its wide range of enquiries and interests, its struggles to attain exact scientific results, its
efforts to employ experimental methods, its laboratories, its failures, its achievements. I have not to speak, however, of what psychology has been or is, but
assuming that to be
sufficiently familiar to you, I must attempt briefly to point out some of its applications to the
great and noble art of
teaching.
We may consider the importance of psychology to the teacher in (1) the discovery of the inter-relations of different lines of study, (2) in organizing and systematizing his own mental life, (3) in guiding the process of bringing together the subject of study and the subject who studies, i.e., in helping the teacher as (a), director; (b), student; (c), educator.
The teacher must know something about the inter-relations of different studies. He has to arrange the time-table, and frequently to teach several of the subjects. Even where, he is restricted to the teaching of some specialty he should know how his special subject is related to the others pursued by the pupils he is teaching. Does psychology occupy such a place as to make it specially valuable in seeing the inter-relations of various studies? Let us examine. Wundt divides studies ·into three great
classes, (a), the natural sciences; (b), the mental sciences; (c), the philosophical enquiries. He claims that psychology is complementary to (a), the natural sciences, assisting in the treatment of problems otherwise inadequately solved; is the foundation of (b), the mental sciences, as dealing with the simple data and underlying principles of all mental sciences, and lastly it is the natural preparation for and introduction to (c), the philosophical enquiries.
That psychology is complementary to the natural sciences may be illustrated by a number of commonplace and well-known instances as the case of the "personal equation" in astronomy, where it becomes [p. 3] necessary to account for the apperception and
reaction times of the observer, who is using the transit instrument to prevent
mistakes. Familiar examples illustrate that the
abstracted, mathematical and physical properties of the observed phenomenon do not
alone explain the appearances, e.g., the larger apparent size of the moon when near the horizon; the apparent motion of the sun. Other simple illustrations might be taken from the optical illusions arising when what is termed "pencils" of lines are drawn from a point between two parallel lines, cutting the parallel lines in various directions, make the parallel lines seem
to curve outward; while lines drawn from points outside the parallel lines and terminating in an imaginary line midway between the parallel lines, make the parallel lines appear to curve inward, etc.·
Cases of color contrast afford other illustrations. A continuous strip of gray on contiguous surfaces of black and white appear darker on the white and lighter on the black background; the same gray placed on backgrounds of red and of green appear greenish on the red and reddish on the green background.
The British Scientific Association places psychology among the natural sciences in its meetings by making it a sub-section of physiology. The America Scientific Association places it under the second group of mental sciences by making it a subsection of
anthropology. It belongs to both places.
Only a slight examination is required to see that for the mental sciences psychology
is just as fundamental and
underlying as mathematics is for the natural sciences. Note any
recent advance in these and you
will find it resting on insight into and appreciation some psychological
principle. Look at the new methods of teaching grammar, not before, but through the language to which it belongs.
Look at the complete revolution in method in the manner of teaching and using rules, once first, now last in the process, once announced
and memorized, now discovered and constructed by the pupil himself.
Look at the improvement in history in such works as Green's
Short History of the English People; going beneath the events to the life of
the people, their aims and passions,
and the analysis of the character and motives of the chief actors. Look at the improvement in political economy by the introduction
of psychological and ethical considerations. What may we expect in law when some of the time spent on
procedure in criminal law is
applied to the study of the criminal himself? [p. 4]
As to the value of psychology as
an introduction to the philosophical enquiries, an objection might be
raised that all of them, philosophy, æsthetics and theology, claiming to
deal with the true, the beautiful and
the good as ideals, are ultimately based on metaphysics, and the less we have
to do with metaphysics the
better.
Modern philosophy,
however, should not be confound with the much-misunderstood and much-maligned
mediæval disputations any more than modern chemistry with alchemy, or modern
biology and medical science
with the views of Theophrastus Bombastus
Paracelsus. And even the superseded past should be remembered
with some gratitude and respect as the
progenitor of the present. ·"Honor thy father and thy mother." Those who cry out most
loudly against metaphysics, past or present, are in almost every case the
unconscious victims of the shallowest and
most erroneous forms of metaphysical speculation.
It is philosophical speculation carefully
conducted which has done most to expose false principles and to amend crude and
erroneous standpoints. If we mean by philosophy, reflection
on the meaning of experience, reconsideration of the significance
of the results gained in scientific investigations, then, instead of saying no
one should have anything to do with philosophy, we should rather say everyone
should have something to do with philosophy.
Everyone who reflects on the meaning of
life and its experiences, who desires to pass beyond the mere appearances and
discover their worth and importance
for life, conduct and destiny is to that extent a philosopher.
It is necessary to specialize in science
to gain results. But every scientist in every field has not only the privilege
but also the duty to give more than mere details connected with his specialty.
He should endeavor to give
hints concerning their ultimate meaning
as this is revealed to him. At any rate, the teacher cannot be a mere pedant. He must be a man as well as a scholar, and he will give a
respectful hearing to such investigations and cultivate an intelligent interest in them. For this, psychology is a useful introduction
and preparation. May we not
conclude that psychology stands in such a central position and in such intimate
connection with every branch of enquiry that it is peculiarly fitted to assist
in their co-ordination ?
II. --
THE TEACHER AS STUDENT.
It is scarcely necessary to say anything about the importance of continual study to the teacher. He must keep alive his interest in [p. 5]
what he is teaching by continually enriching his mind by new enquiries and acquisitions.
Our studies should be organized. Each new
discovery should he made to throw light upon everything we already know.
By
reflectively, actively organizing in this way the mind
gains strength and insight, keeps alive its old
interests and creates new ones.
Thus study is made delightful and fruitful, thought is trained to become consecutive and
successful. The teacher should himself
be a thinker of this type and he
should have psychological
insight to enable him to guide his pupils to attain such an intellectual
culture.
III. -- THE TEACHER AS EDUCATOR.
What the teacher acquires and gains in his own self-culture is, as teacher, a means; the end sought by
him is the training of pupils. He must stimulate and awaken interest. He
desires to make the subject of study a means to transform the whole character
of the subject who studies. In order to
accomplish this, the teacher must keep in mind the logical order of a correct presentation of the subject
of study; the stage of development and powers of his pupil and the laws of his
mental growth; that he may gain the result, the developed
pupil. In order of presentation, he must proceed front the simpler to the more
complex; and the simpler is not the most abstract but
the most concrete, for he must also proceed from the known to the less known.
He must arrange the presentation so
that a puzzle or problem
is proposed and suggested to the pupil, add his
curiosity aroused to endeavor to
solve it.
The teacher must sympathetically place himself at the pupil's standpoint, if he desires the pupil,
to advance to his point of
view. In order to do this, he should
endeavor to recall the stages and processes whereby he as
pupil proceeded, when he was at the stage now occupied by his pupil. The ability to do this, probably accounts
for the fact that, in many cases an English-speaking teacher will be more successful in teaching
pupils the rudiments of a foreign language than a native. It may also
account for the fact that so large a proportion of young and inexperienced
teachers succeed as well as
they do.
The most important service of psychology
to the teacher, is that it that it leads him to
consciously and systematically study
his pupils and thus awakens or intensifies his interest
in them. Surely, if a doctor
becomes interested in the discovery of new diseases and new remedies for them, a teacher should he
interested in each new pupil and in each experiment for his improvement. [p. 6]
An individualized
interest makes a teacher as careful of his pupils as a fond mother is of her children. He is on the alert to see that the physical well-being of the child is
not neglected. Has the child had habits
of sitting, or studying, or walking, or breathing? He discovers the cause and endeavors to
correct kindly, wisely, and at once.
Proper physical habits conduce to health and morality.
Is the child Is
the child untidy or unmannerly? The
teacher leads him by example
and considerate advice. The child is
respected and is taught to respect
himself., Is
the child dull and stupid? The teacher endeavors
to find out if ill-health, or
poor food, or ill-usage at home,
is the cause; he encourages the child to play,
and soon it will turn out that the teacher is found visiting the home and
endeavoring to arouse parental
solicitude and gain parental co-operation. This teacher will not neglect lighting,
heating, or· ventilation; he
will be careful not to unduly fatigue his
pupils, and will be found
supervising their plays without
officious interference. He will even be
found guarding the out-houses and walls from the desecration of perverted vandalism. He will be the guide, counsellor
and confidential friend of the adolescent
pupils; guarding them
with solicitude and ·watchfulness
in this critical period of unstable equilibrium, when the nature is plastic and
responsive to the promptings of
the highest ideals; and when,
on the other hand, the danger is
so great of the beginnings of perverted habits and criminal tendencies arising, if the pupils are neglected, and allowed simply to
"grow up" like Topsy or Ruth Bonnython.
Let us now recall
some examples of assistance from psychology,
in arrangement of time table and
presentation of the subject of study.
The thoughtful
teacher will distinguish between the more severely logical and mathematical subjects,
and the historical and literary. For
the former, more concentrated attention is required, and therefore, these should
be placed in the early part of the
programme. When
it comes to reviewing, it will turn out that the second class of studies requires more repetition and reviewing. Pupils should, however, be taught to recall directly what they have previously read and studied, without using the book to
assist them. The memory should be trained
in self-reliance. Perhaps it is in connection with memory that most people
would think of the assistance of psychology
to the student.
Kant says memory may be mechanical, ingenious,
or judicious. I think it must be
confessed that the earliest attempts to
apply psychology in assisting and directing memory training, were chiefly of the [p. 7] "ingenious"
kind. discovering curious and arbitrary connections in accordance with the law of the association
of ideas, through similarity, contrast and
contiguity.
Many text-books seem to be constructed with the view of employing the "mechanical" memory. It is supposed that the briefer the summary, the easier it will be to learn and remember. The student is supposed to con[sic] over the tables and learn them by sheer repetition.
A deeper insight will indicate more "judicious"
methods. The great rule for memory is "take care of knowing and recollecting
will take care of itself." Let the subject be
taught and studied logically,
systematically, thoroughly, and woven
as widely as possible into
the warp and woof of the mental interests and thoughts of the pupil. In this
way the time spent in one subject is not taken from all others, but is
contributing to all others. It is a popular fallacy to suppose that all the time
spent in one subject is subtracted away from every other.
The trained and experienced teacher educates all the powers of his pupils,
and utilizes every subject for this purpose. He keeps clearly before his view the result to be attained, carefully selects the most
efficient means, and with solicitude and interest observes and directs the process.
He desires the full and harmonious development
of all the powers and capabilities of the pupil, physical, mental, social, moral and
religious. He is aware that he is co-operating with the
pupil in the formation of character. Is
there anything of higher value? This thought
makes the teacher reverent, it
impresses him with a sense of his
responsibility; it also enables him to respect his profession and see in it one
of the noblest efforts of human endeavor. Although our Public Schools are sometimes accused of giving merely intellectual
drill, no teacher worthy of the name is limiting his efforts to this. He is
bending every energy to attain discipline and training of character, by means
of the intellectual and the disciplinary; he strives to inculcate ideals and
form habits of faithfulness, honesty, uprightness, industry, truthfulness,
obedience, reverence/
Mark, he is not teaching definitions of these, that would be a "merely intellectual drill." He is moulding the character to
these moral habits. It
is just because the Public Schools are so efficient that Sunday School and home continually desire to relegate more and more to the Public Schools. The careful and reverent study of the child is destined to react upon home, Sunday School and Church. If
child-nature had been studied should we find the text "Except ye [p.
8] become as little children ye cannot
enter the
It would be a
wide field to follow the pernicious effects of un-psychological methods of
parents and teachers in the suppressing of questions, and stifling the religious
cravings of children. We have too often "offended
these little ones."
Sooner or later truer psychological methods, as exemplified in the Kindergarten, will permeate the whole school system and overflow into the Sunday School, the Church and the home. Let me add to the teacher interested in the study of psychology and its applications to his profession:-- Remember that the Science of Psychology, with all its intrinsic importance and immediate usefulness, is simply the portal and propadeutic to the higher reflective problems of the ultimate significance of life, and, art, moral conduct, and religious aspiration. As in your teaching you desire the intellectual to be the means to lift up the pupil to higher ground, prepare him for the reception of the highest truths, so let these lofty themes be in your own life constant topics of interest, perennial sources of new insight, continual fountains of noblest inspiration.